Beautiful Danish Data

• Main monthly employer (BFL) Employment and labour force status
  From monthly eIndkomst job records (BFL), each person-month is assigned the job with the most paid hours (AJO_LOENTIMER) as the primary employer; its CVR number, wage and hours are kept. Month and year come from the job start date field AJO_JOB_START_DATO.
  Registers: BFL
  Codes: AJO_CVR_NR_FRA_PROD_JOB, AJO_SMALT_LOENBELOEB, AJO_LOENTIMER, AJO_JOB_START_DATO; primary job = max(AJO_LOENTIMER) within pnr-year-month
  replication code · script/cleaning/1_c_monthly_data.R
• Stayer (same employer Dec 2020 to Dec 2021) Employment and labour force status
  Among workers with an employer and monthly wage above 2,000 DKK in December 2020, stay=1 if the main employer in December 2021 is the same as in December 2020, else 0. Sample restricted to ages 20-65 and 2020 annual BFL earnings of at least 24,000 DKK.
  Registers: BFL
  Codes: wage>2000 in Dec 2020; employer_g == F12.employer_g; sum_earnings>=24000
  replication code · script/analysis/fig4/preprocess_fig4a.do; paper Figure 4 note
• Months out of work after separation Unemployment and benefits
  A separation is a month in which the worker has a main employer with monthly wage above 2,000 DKK and next month's employer differs; only the first separation per person is used. Time out of work = months until a different non-missing employer appears (capped at 24) minus one, so job-to-job moves count as 0 and returns to the same employer are not reemployment. The paper describes separations in 2020; the posted do-file's window (date<=24 from Dec 2018) covers Dec 2018-Dec 2019.
  Registers: BFL
  Codes: jan_sep = employer_g != F1employer_g; reemp = first k with F`k'employer_g != employer_g & non-missing; gap = reemp-1; cap 24
  replication code · script/analysis/fig4/preprocess_fig4b.do; paper Section 3.2 and Figure 4 note
• Annual earnings (register) Earnings and income
  Annual earnings are wage income LOENMV_13 from the income register (IND); self-employment income is NETOVSKUD_13 kept separately. Realized earnings growth 2020-2021 is ln(earnings_2021*100/102) - ln(earnings_2020), dropping observations with earnings below 24,000 DKK in either year and trimming at the 1st/99th percentile.
  Registers: IND
  Codes: LOENMV_13 (earnings), NETOVSKUD_13 (self-employment income); threshold 24,000 DKK; deflator 100/102; winsor2 trim 1/99
  replication code · script/cleaning/1_b_annual_data.R; script/analysis/fig7/preprocess_fig7.do; paper Figure 6 note
• Net wealth and liquid wealth Wealth, debt and consumption
  Net wealth = (KOEJD + BANKAKT + KURSAKT + OBLAKT + PANTAKT) - (BANKGAELD + GAELD_TIL_OFF + OBLGAELD + PANTGAELD), missing public debt set to 0. Liquid wealth = BANKAKT + KURSAKT + OBLAKT + PANTAKT. Pension wealth is the sum of PF_FORMUE across contracts in PENSFORM.
  Registers: IND, PENSFORM
  Codes: KOEJD, BANKAKT, KURSAKT, OBLAKT, PANTAKT, BANKGAELD, GAELD_TIL_OFF, OBLGAELD, PANTGAELD; PF_FORMUE
  replication code · script/cleaning/1_b_annual_data.R
• Monthly UI, cash benefits and retirement transfers Unemployment and benefits
  From ILME monthly non-employee e-income records, amounts across A/B income fields are summed per person-month and classified by the income-type code of the largest payment: UI if VMO_INDK_ART codes 2,5,8,16,104; cash benefits if type code 6 or art codes 40,41,43,84,87; retirement if art codes 6,9,10,13,20,24,25,44,45,74,83,86,113,115.
  Registers: ILME
  Codes: VMO_INDKOMST_ART_KODE UI: 2,5,8,16,104; CB: VMO_INDKOMST_TYPE_KODE 6 or ART 40,41,43,84,87; Retirement ART: 6,9,10,13,20,24,25,44,45,74,83,86,113,115
  replication code · script/cleaning/1_c_monthly_data.R
• Public vs private sector Sector and industry
  Main job (highest LOENTIMER in IDAN per year) is public if ARB_SEKTORKODE is non-missing and not 99, and recoded private if ARB_SEKTORKODE is in 18, 28, 89, 81, 58, 48, 42, 52. Industry groups come from DB07 ranges of ARB_HOVED_BRA_DB07 (e.g. >=840000 public services, 850000 teaching, 860000 health).
  Registers: IDAN
  Codes: ARB_SEKTORKODE private: 18,28,89,81,58,48,42,52; ARB_HOVED_BRA_DB07 6-digit DB07 ranges
  replication code · script/cleaning/1_b_annual_data.R
• Occupation group Occupation and job hierarchy
  Main job's DISCO_KODE first digit mapped to 9 groups (1 management, 2 high knowledge, 3 medium knowledge, 4 office, 5 sales/services, 6 farming, 7 craft, 8 skilled, 9 unskilled); military (DISCO below 100000) dropped. Tenure = year - ANSAAR.
  Registers: IDAN
  Codes: DISCO_KODE first digit 1-9; DISCO_KODE<100000 excluded; ANSAAR
  replication code · script/cleaning/1_b_annual_data.R
• Education level Education and test scores
  Highest completed education HFAUDD (latest available year) mapped through the audd format's H1 level: 10 elementary; 20, 25 high school; 30, 35 vocational; 40, 50, 60 bachelor; 65, 70 master.
  Registers: UDDA
  Codes: HFAUDD via uddan_2014_audd H1: 10; 20,25; 30,35; 40,50,60; 65,70
  replication code · script/cleaning/1_b_annual_data.R
• Population survey weights Sample definition and timing
  Inverse predicted propensity scores from a probability model of survey participation estimated on 2020 administrative data on the demographics of Danes active in the labour market.
  paper · Footnote 10 (details in Online Appendix B)

Replication package

• Consumer cell (region x industry of main employment) Geography and neighbourhood
  Every adult is assigned to a region by home address at the start of 2018 (BEF), one per each of 98 municipalities, and to an industry by the NACE code of the establishment responsible for the largest part of 2018 labour income (AKM), mapped from six-digit NACE to 24 work industries. Cells with fewer than 3 individuals or establishments are censored.
  Registers: BEF, AKM
  Codes: six-digit NACE mapped to 24 DEA work industries (Table A.I); 98 municipalities
  working paper · Appendix D; Section II
• Non-working consumer industries Employment and labour force status
  Adults without labour income are assigned to 'retired' if older than 65, 'students' if they receive a government stipend, 'long-term unemployed' if they receive unemployment or cash benefits (fully benefit-dependent with no labour income all year), and otherwise 'out of workforce'.
  Registers: BEF, IND
  working paper · Appendix D; footnote 5
• Producer cell (establishment region x industry) Firm characteristics and productivity
  Firm establishments are assigned to 2,646 producer cells by region and production industry using the employment registers; 24 work industries plus 3 housing industries without employees (private landlords, owner-occupied housing, government-owned housing).
  Registers: BFL, IDAN
  working paper · Appendix D; Section II
• Labour compensation flows Earnings and income
  Total annual labour compensation per individual including employer pension contributions, from IND and INPI, aggregated to consumer x producer cells and scaled by 1.01 to SNA D.1. Compensation from foreign producers (IND) scaled by 1.47; payments by Danish producers in BFL to persons not in BEF are treated as foreign employees and scaled by 1.14.
  Registers: IND, INPI, BFL, BEF
  Codes: SNA D.1; scale factors 1.01, 1.47, 1.14
  working paper · Appendix I
• Mixed income, dividends and owner-occupied housing surplus Earnings and income
  Mixed income links sole-proprietorship establishments in IDAN (including municipality) to owners' mixed income. Dividends (SNA D.42) are allocated to consumer cells in proportion to stock dividend income in IND and to producer cells in proportion to accounting income. Owner-occupied housing surplus (B.2G) = imputed rental values in IND scaled by 0.67.
  Registers: IDAN, IND
  Codes: SNA B.3g, D.42, B.2G; scale 0.67
  working paper · Appendix J
• Government benefits to consumers Unemployment and benefits
  Social benefits (SNA D.62) = all government income transfers plus private pension payouts from IND, scaled by 1.03. Other current transfers (D.7) allocated by BEF population shares; pension entitlement adjustment (D.8) from IND and INPI contributions net of payouts.
  Registers: IND, INPI, BEF
  Codes: SNA D.62, D.7, D.8; scale 1.03
  working paper · Appendix K
• Disaggregated consumer spending Wealth, debt and consumption
  Danske Bank customers (main account at Danske Bank and at least one spending transaction per month in 2018-2019) assigned home region monthly from bank address records and industry from the employer paying the largest share of annual income. Merchant region from geocoded transaction-string addresses and industry from an MCC-to-ISIC/NACE crosswalk; cash withdrawals allocated in proportion to in-person card payments.
  Registers: Danske Bank transactions
  Codes: MCC to ISIC/NACE crosswalk
  working paper · Section III.A; Appendix E.A-E.C
• Manual labour share and cell characteristics Occupation and job hierarchy
  Individual does manual labour if main occupation (AKM) is manual trades, operator and assembly, transportation, other manual labour or military. Cell averages also of university degree (UDDA), total debt, liquid financial assets (deposits, stocks, bonds, fund shares) and illiquid assets (FORMGELD).
  Registers: AKM, UDDA, FORMGELD
  working paper · Appendix M
• Establishment output for IO disaggregation Firm characteristics and productivity
  Firm output is distributed across a firm's establishments using within-firm labour compensation shares, then aggregated to 173 subindustries combining the 117-industry national IO table and DEA industries; intermediate flows are split proportional to output shares.
  Registers: NIO1-NIO3 (statbank)
  Codes: 117 NA industries; 173 subindustries
  working paper · Appendix N.A

Replication package

• Household total income Earnings and income
  Yearly total income before taxes and labour market contributions, including labour income, public transfers, property income and most other taxable income attributable to the individual (excludes imputed rental value, pension contributions to employer schemes and lottery winnings). Household value is the average of the two spouses' values if a spouse is present in CPR, otherwise the individual value.
  Registers: IND, BEF
  Codes: PERINDKIALT_13 (income); spouse via E_FAELLE_ID
  replication code · code_dstserver/code_epinion/2_build_registries.do; NBER WP w32664 Section 1.2 and footnote 6
• Household labour income Earnings and income
  Total taxable wage income, benefits, bonuses, severance pay and value of stock options, averaged across spouses as for total income.
  Registers: IND
  Codes: LOENMV_13 (income_work)
  replication code · code_dstserver/code_epinion/2_build_registries.do; NBER WP w32664 Section 1.2
• Recent and future household income change Earnings and income
  For a respondent interviewed in any month of year t, recent change = log nominal household income in t-1 minus t-2; future change = log income in t+1 minus t-1. Changes are trimmed at the 2.5 and 97.5 percentiles.
  Registers: IND
  Codes: Log_Income_HH_L1L2, Log_Income_HH_F1L1; winsor2 cut(2.5 97.5) trim
  replication code · code_dstserver/analysis/A1c_sample_restrictions.do; NBER WP w32664 Section 1.3
• Liquid assets and net wealth Wealth, debt and consumption
  Liquid assets follow Andersen et al. (2020): total value of bank deposits, stocks and bonds reported by financial institutions to SKAT. Net wealth is SKAT's tax-purpose measure of net household assets excluding non-deposited cash and foreign assets, with real estate at tax-assessed values; both averaged across spouses and used as asinh changes.
  Registers: IND
  working paper · Section 1.2 and footnote 7
• Self-employment exclusion Sample definition and timing
  Exclude respondents if self-employment income exceeds one fourth of household income (in absolute value) in any year from t-4 to t+1 around the interview.
  Registers: IND
  Codes: abs(Income_selfemp_HH)/abs(Income_HH) > .25 for timestamps L4..F1
  replication code · code_dstserver/analysis/A1c_sample_restrictions.do; NBER WP footnote 11
• Main survey sample Sample definition and timing
  Monthly survey respondents 2012-2019 (backcast analyses 2013-2019) aged 25-60, excluding high self-employment income, missing key survey answers (Do not know, refused or forecast >100 pp) and missing registry variables, after trimming income changes and inflation answers at 2.5/97.5 percentiles.
  Registers: BEF, IND, UDDA
  Codes: Age<25 | Age>60 dropped
  replication code · code_dstserver/analysis/A1c_sample_restrictions.do; NBER WP Section 1.3
• Family emergency room visit in survey month Health care use
  Indicator equal to one if any household member (household identifier from BEF) visited the emergency room in the calendar month of the interview. An ER visit is an acute outpatient hospital contact in the NPR (recorded as patient type ER before 2014, acute outpatient from 2014). Respondents with more than 7 family ER visits over 2008-2018 are dropped.
  Registers: LPR, BEF
  Codes: has_now_visit_fam; ERvisit_count_surveysample_fam <= 7
  replication code · code_dstserver/analysis/A9_healthregs.do; NBER WP Online Appendix A.1 (Emergency Room Visits Data) and ER table notes
• Highest education (ISCED) Education and test scores
  HFAUDD from UDDA mapped via an ISCED crosswalk to single-digit ISCED 2011 levels 1-6; code 9 (not known) set to missing.
  Registers: UDDA
  Codes: HFAUDD -> ISCED_AUDD_AFSP4L_KT first digit
  replication code · code_dstserver/code_epinion/2_build_registries.do

Replication package

• Labour market participation, part-time and full-time work Employment and labour force status
  Participation means at least 481 annual hours (e.g. 37 hours for 13 weeks) on BFL pay slips together with annual income of at least 50,000 DKK; part time is 481-1,664 annual hours; full time is more than 1,664 hours. Monthly hours and income are scaled down by the share of the month registered on parental leave in the OF register.
  Registers: BFL (eIndkomst), OF
  Codes: thresholds 481 and 1,664 annual hours; 50,000 DKK
  working paper · Section 2; Supplemental Material A
• Annual labour income (BFL) Earnings and income
  12-month sum of monthly labour income from BFL pay slips, by calendar year for age profiles and centred on the birth month for event-study moments (e.g. income from January-February before a March birth counts as year -1); excludes income registered while on parental leave; deflated by CPI, in 1000 DKK. Estimation sample 2010-2018.
  Registers: BFL (eIndkomst), OF
  working paper · Section 2; Supplemental Material A
• Personal income (tax sample) Earnings and income
  Personal income from annual tax data: labour income from wage work, profits from own firms and labour market transfers; deflated by CPI.
  Registers: IND
  Codes: PERINDKP
  working paper · Supplemental Material A
• Couples / partners Family links, fertility and household
  Partners follow Statistics Denmark's family definition, including married and cohabiting couples; cohabitants are two adults at the same address registered as parents to a child, or two opposite-sex adults with an age difference under 15 years at the same address. Constructed from EFALLE in BEF; couple age is the woman's age. Estimation sample keeps couples with at most five years age difference.
  Registers: BEF
  Codes: EFALLE; FOED_DAG; KOEN
  working paper · Section 2, footnote 8; Supplemental Material A
• High skilled vs less skilled Education and test scores
  High skilled if at least 180 months of education (at least a bachelor's degree), measured as the highest degree earned in the sample period; less skilled otherwise.
  Registers: UDDA
  Codes: HFPRIA >= 180 months
  working paper · Section 2; Supplemental Material A
• Labour market experience Employment and labour force status
  Statistics Denmark's experience measure based on accumulated mandatory ATP pension payments, which depend on hours worked; part-time employment counts as 2/3 of full time.
  Registers: IDAP
  Codes: ERHVER, ERHVER79
  working paper · Section 2; Supplemental Material A
• Sample exclusions by main activity Sample definition and timing
  Individuals aged 25-60 with an opposite-sex partner; observations dropped if mainly student, self-employed, retired or on disability pension, based on main activity at end of November.
  Registers: IDAP/AKM (socio-economic status)
  Codes: SOCSTIL, SOCSTIL_KODE
  working paper · Section 2; Supplemental Material A
• Mechanical net-of-tax rate change (instrument) Taxes and tax rates
  Four-year mechanical change log(1 - tau_{t+4}(z_t)) - log(1 - tau_t(z_t)) in the marginal net-of-tax rate, holding income and characteristics at year-t values, computed with a Danish tax simulator; used to instrument own and partner net-of-tax rate changes and virtual income. Restricted to couples where both have personal income of 50,000-600,000 DKK in the base year. Outcome is the 4-year difference in number of children born.
  Registers: IND
  working paper · Section 3; Supplemental Material A.1
• Household wealth Wealth, debt and consumption
  Bank deposits, bonds, stocks and property net of loans and mortgages at end of year; registered property values raised by 10% (following Leth-Petersen 2010); deflated by CPI, in 1000 DKK.
  Registers: IND
  Codes: FORM; FORMREST_NY05 (after 1996)
  working paper · Supplemental Material A
• Child linkage and age of children Family links, fertility and household
  Children and their ages are linked to parents through the parent identifiers in BEF; almost all children can be linked to a mother.
  Registers: BEF
  online appendix · Supplemental Material, Data Appendix (p. S2)
• Estimation sample vs tax sample Sample definition and timing
  Two samples: the BFL estimation sample of all individuals aged 25-60 with partners, 2010-2018; and the tax sample of women aged 25-40 with partners, 2004-2018 (used with personal income PERINDKP). Both split by less skilled vs high skilled.
  Registers: BFL (eIndkomst), IND, BEF
  online appendix · Supplemental Material, Table A.1

• First sudden parental death (treatment) Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Sudden deaths = deaths from heart diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, and traffic or other (external) accidents; non-sudden = all remaining causes. Sample: first parental deaths 1985-2014 for children aged 25-50 in the year of the first parental death with two known parents.
  Registers: DODSAARS/DODSAARG, BEF
  Codes: cause categories only (no ICD list given in appendix); child age 25-50; deaths 1985-2014
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Figure B.2 and B.5 notes
• Matched control group Sample definition and timing
  Alternative control group following Fadlon and Nielsen (2021): individuals treated 6 years later serve as controls. Spillover analysis on in-laws restricts to married/cohabiting individuals matched to married/cohabiting controls who lose no parent-in-law in the window, also matching on whether own parents are alive. SEs clustered at individual-by-match ID.
  Registers: BEF, DODSAARS/DODSAARG
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix A.C, A.F
• Indexed earnings Earnings and income
  Earnings from employment and self-employment, inflated to 2020 levels and indexed by the average earnings of men (women) one year before the parental death.
  Registers: IND
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Figure B.5 and B.9 notes
• Participation and hours proxy (ATP) Hours worked
  Participation = strictly positive ATP pension contributions; intensive margin = amount of ATP contributions (paid proportionally to hours worked), following Kleven, Landais and Sogaard (2019).
  Registers: ATP contributions (income registers)
  Codes: ATP > 0
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Figure B.5 notes
• Psychologist and psychiatrist visits Health care use
  Psychologist visit data available 1990-2019; GP visits also used as an outcome.
  Registers: SYSI/SSSY
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Figures B.9-B.10 notes
• Mental health prescriptions Health care use
  Any prescription classified as mental-health related: ATC codes N05*, N06A*, N06B*, N06C*. Prescription data available from 1995; effects measured within 5 years after first parental death.
  Registers: LMDB
  Codes: ATC N05*, N06A*, N06B*, N06C*
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Figure B.10 notes
• Opioid and alcohol-dependence prescriptions Health care use
  Opioid painkillers: ATC N02A*; prescriptions for treatment of alcohol addiction: ATC N07BB. Prescription data from 1995.
  Registers: LMDB
  Codes: ATC N02A*; ATC N07BB
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Figures B.9-B.10 notes
• Hospital visits Health care use
  In- and outpatient visits at non-psychiatric hospital wards (data 1994-2018). Split into self-screening visits, defined by ICD-10 Z00 (general examination and investigation of persons without complaint and reported diagnosis) and Z01 (other special examinations and investigations of persons without complaint or reported diagnosis), including subcategories, versus non-screening diagnoses. Surviving parent's health status is based on their hospital visits in the 5 years before the first parental death.
  Registers: LPR_ADM, LPR_DIAG
  Codes: ICD-10 Z00*, Z01* (screening)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Figures B.10, B.11, B.15 notes
• Formal childcare uptake Family links, fertility and household
  Uptake of formal childcare for children under age 5 and above age 5; only 2005-2019 used due to low coverage before 2005.
  Registers: DAGI/BOERNFB
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Figure B.14 notes
• Parent-child residential distance Geography and neighbourhood
  Four categories: same municipality (99 municipalities); same NUTS3 region but not municipality (11 NUTS3 regions); same NUTS2 region but not NUTS3 (5 NUTS2 regions); greater distance.
  Registers: BEF
  Codes: municipality / NUTS3 / NUTS2
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix A.E

• Acute respiratory hospitalizations (first year of life) Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Number of inpatient hospitalizations in the first year of life (also split into first and second six months) with a primary diagnosis of an acute respiratory condition, from the National Patient Register (1981-2018).
  Registers: LPR
  Codes: ICD-8 starting 46, 47, 48, 490, 079, 783; ICD-10 starting J (excluding J4) or B974
  online appendix · Section 2; Appendix A
• RSV hospitalizations Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Hospitalizations for respiratory syncytial virus, measurable only for cohorts born 1994 or later (ICD-10).
  Registers: LPR
  Codes: ICD-10 J12.1, J20.5, J21.0, B97.4
  online appendix · Appendix A
• Chronic respiratory hospitalizations Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Inpatient visits with a primary diagnosis of a chronic respiratory condition (e.g. asthma, COPD), studied at ages 16-26.
  Registers: LPR
  Codes: ICD-8 491-493; ICD-10 J4
  online appendix · Appendix A
• Mental healthcare visits Health care use
  Visits to psychiatric hospitals (inpatient, outpatient, ED from the Psychiatric Central Research Register) and to private psychiatric clinics (Health Insurance Register reimbursements, identified by physician specialty codes), at extensive and intensive margins, ages 16-26 (data 1997-2018).
  Registers: Psychiatric Central Research Register, Sygesikringsregisteret
  Codes: physician specialty codes 24 or 26
  online appendix · Section 2; Appendix A
• Respiratory disease exposure index Geography and neighbourhood
  Monthly number of acute respiratory hospitalizations per 100 children aged 13-71 months in the child's municipality of residence (2007 municipality structure, via crosswalk), excluding the child's own older sibling if aged 13-71 months, summed over the 12 months of the child's first year of life (also separate indices for months 1-6 and 7-12).
  Registers: LPR, BEF
  Codes: Acute respiratory ICD codes as above
  paper · Section 4 and footnote 17
• Sibling analysis sample Sample definition and timing
  From all 2,278,868 children born 1981-2017: drop one-child families; keep first- and second-born singletons only; require birth spacing of at least 11 months; require known municipality of birth in municipalities averaging at least 1,000 children aged 13-71 months (91 municipalities kept); drop missing parental controls and keep complete pairs. Final sample 1,230,180 children.
  Registers: MFR, BEF
  paper · Section 2 (Analysis sample), footnote 14
• Labour force participation Employment and labour force status
  Indicator equal to 1 if in the labour force (employed or unemployed searching) and 0 if out of the labour force, based on tax-record labour market status as of November of the preceding year; ages 18-32.
  Registers: RAS
  paper · Section 2 (Labor market and income outcomes)
• Wages, gross income and income rank Earnings and income
  Wages among the employed and gross personal income including government transfers, in 2010 USD, winsorized at the 1st and 99th percentiles; income rank is the percentile of gross personal income within the full Danish population of the same birth cohort and age; ages 18-32.
  Registers: IND
  paper · Section 2, footnote 12
• Education attainment and 9th grade test scores Education and test scores
  Indicators for high school and college graduation by ages 18-32 from highest completed schooling; 9th grade Danish (reading) and mathematics scores (2001-2019) standardized within subject and test year.
  Registers: UDDA, Academic Achievement Register
  paper · Section 2 (Education outcomes)

• Experimental sample Sample definition and timing
  Full stock of individuals registered as unemployed and receiving UI benefits in Denmark at the start of the experiment on March 15, 2019 (92,098 individuals); welfare recipients and later entrants excluded. Outcomes measured over windows after entrydate.
  Registers: STAR experiment data
  Codes: entrydate == mdy(3,15,2019)
  replication code · _README.pdf (Subject pool); code/data_preparation.do
• Total working hours within 6/12 months Hours worked
  Sum of paid hours (AJO_LOENTIMER) over all BFL monthly job records whose AJO_JOB_START_DATO falls after entrydate and within q x 30.42 days (q=6, 12); zero if no records.
  Registers: BFL
  Codes: AJO_LOENTIMER summed for AJO_JOB_START_DATO in (entrydate, entrydate+q*30.4167]
  replication code · code/data_preparation.do (Monthly labor market outcomes; hours4_total)
• Total earnings within 6/12 months Earnings and income
  Sum of AJO_SMALT_LOENBELOEB over BFL records with job start date in the window after entrydate, zero if none.
  Registers: BFL
  Codes: AJO_SMALT_LOENBELOEB (earnings4_total)
  replication code · code/data_preparation.do
• Monthly employment rate Employment and labour force status
  emp_q = 1 if cumulative BFL hours increase between month q-1 and q after entry (emp1 = any hours in month 1); employment rate over 6 or 12 months is the mean of these monthly indicators.
  Registers: BFL
  Codes: emp`x' = (hours4_total`x' - hours4_total`x-1' > 0); emp_rate12 = rmean(emp1..emp12)
  replication code · code/data_preparation.do
• Employment in recommended / stored occupations Occupation and job hierarchy
  Hours, earnings and monthly employment in BFL jobs whose DISCO code (VMO_DISCO_KODE truncated to 4 digits) matches one of up to five recommended occupations (Alternative_DISCO mapping of the job seeker's profile occupations) or an occupation stored in the job search profile (jsjs CVFAGID), within 183 and 365 days of entry.
  Registers: BFL, STAR jsjs
  Codes: floor(VMO_DISCO_KODE/100) == floor(forslag/1000) or floor(discoams_key/1000)
  replication code · code/data_preparation.do (occupations_rec, occupations_stored)
• Share of applications to recommended occupations Occupation and job hierarchy
  Among applications logged in Joblog within 1 or 12 months (30.25-day months) after entry, the share whose DISCO-AMS occupation equals a recommended occupation (or one stored in the profile).
  Registers: STAR Joblog
  Codes: share_recommended_t1/t12, share_stored_t1/t12
  replication code · code/data_preparation.do
• Labour market tightness Unemployment and benefits
  Vacancies divided by job seekers per municipality x occupation in the experiment's starting week (week 1442), averaged over the occupations in the individual's search profile.
  Registers: STAR vacancies, STAR jsjs
  Codes: tightness = no_vacancies/jobseekers, week==1442
  replication code · code/data_preparation.do
• Treatment intensity Geography and neighbourhood
  Baseline: municipality regime (10 super-control, 44 medium with 60% treated, 44 high with 90% treated). Alternatives: share treated in own plus bordering municipalities; commuting-weighted shares using the fraction of workers residing in j who commuted to m in the three prior years; and an individual measure over zip-code x 3-digit-occupation markets applied to in the two prior years.
  Registers: BFL, STAR Joblog
  Codes: geogroup 1/2/3; intensity_alt1
  online appendix · OnlineAppendix.pdf Section B.1; _README.pdf; code/data_preparation.do
• Pre-intervention labour market history Earnings and income
  From BFL records with period start before entry: mean monthly wage (lon) and employment degree (grad) in each of the three years before entry (year t-1 excludes the last 30 days), set to zero if absent; last pre-intervention occupation is the 1-digit DISCO of the most recent BFL spell.
  Registers: BFL
  Codes: wage_tminus1-3, grad_tminus1-3; last_occ = floor(VMO_DISCO_KODE/100000)
  replication code · code/data_preparation.do

Replication package

• Work accident causing loss of earning capacity (treatment) Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Work accidents recorded by the Labour Market Insurance (AES) that caused a loss of earning capacity, restricted to physical (not psychological) injuries, non-military workers, and workers with full-time employment in each of the three years before the accident. An injury qualifies for compensation if personal impairment exceeds 5% or earning capacity loss exceeds 15%.
  Registers: Industrial Injury Register (Arbejdsskaderegisteret, AES), IDA
  working paper · Sections 2.1, 2.2.1 and 3.1
• Injury severity (earning capacity loss, personal impairment) Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Earnings capacity loss = loss of earning capacity in percent as assessed by The Labour Market Insurance (AES); personal impairment = degree of personal impairment in percent based on injury diagnosis. Temporary injuries = accidents AES assesses did not cause permanent loss of earning capacity or personal impairment. Non-injured controls are assigned the injury year of their matched injured worker.
  Registers: AES Industrial Injury Register (Arbejdsskaderegisteret)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 26-28; temporary-injury figure notes
• Matched non-injured control workers Sample definition and timing
  Injured workers matched one-to-one to non-injured workers in cells of event year, pre-event occupation, age, gender and level of education (baseline specification 5); occupational earnings premium computed within Year-Occupation-Industry-Education-Age-Gender match cells.
  Registers: IDA; AES; education register
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table C.2 and Figure C.1 notes; Table F notes
• Access to higher education (instrument) Education and test scores
  Direct access to higher education through a high school diploma or a vocational degree. Travel time to higher education = shortest car travel time (minutes) from residence zip code to the zip code of the nearest facility offering a relevant higher degree (as in Harmon 2015), measured separately for Craft, Care and Other educational groups; imputed for non-access workers as a residence-zip weighted average.
  Registers: Education register (UDDA); residence zip code
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 24-25
• Degree and course enrolment/completion Education and test scores
  Degree courses = formal education programmes in the Education Register (UDDA); non-degree courses = Course Participation Register (VEUV); courses classified as Basic (primary/high school), Vocational, Higher (post-secondary). Training rate = share enrolling in a higher degree within six years after the accident; participation flow = enrollment in higher degrees in the year; stock = accumulated enrollment. Reskilling (2SLS treatment) = pursuing a higher degree within ten years after the accident; completers vs drop-outs defined by completion within ten years.
  Registers: UDDA (Education Register); VEUV (Course Participation Register)
  Codes: Within 6 years (training rate); within 10 years (reskilling)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 31-38; Section D.1; Figure D notes
• Disability and other social transfers Unemployment and benefits
  Effects on transfers (incl. disability and unemployment benefits) are scaled with transfer rates linked to the transfer codes of the DREAM register; education costs include tuition (~$16,500 per full-time student-year, from government rate catalogs) and SU and reskilling benefits; 6% real discount rate.
  Registers: DREAM register
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Section J
• Occupational task content / physical ability Occupation and job hierarchy
  Physical ability requirement = standardized average O*NET importance of Static Strength, Explosive Strength, Dynamic Strength, Trunk Strength and Stamina. Cognitive ability requirement = standardized average importance of Fluency of Ideas, Originality, Problem Sensitivity, Deductive Reasoning, Inductive Reasoning, Information Ordering, Category Flexibility, Mathematical Reasoning and Number Facility. Physical jobs = physical requirement > 0.5 SD above the mean. Occupational injury rate = accepted (not necessarily compensated) work accidents per full-time employee.
  Registers: O*NET mapped to DISCO occupation codes; AES accident records
  Codes: Physical job: > +0.5 SD
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 21-23; Section D.6.2 figure notes
• Health care utilisation (incl. antidepressant use) Health care use
  Hospitalisations (inpatient and outpatient) with diagnoses from LPR, contacts with primary-care physicians and specialists from the Health Insurance Register, and prescription drug purchases (e.g. antidepressants, painkillers/opioids) from LMDB, 1995-2017.
  Registers: LPR, Sygesikringsregisteret, LMDB
  working paper · Section 2.2.2; Section 3.1
• Hours worked Hours worked
  2008-2017: yearly number of paid hours. 1995-2007: yearly labor income divided by hourly wage rate.
  Registers: Employment/earnings registers (Statistics Denmark)
  Codes: Break in 2008
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, row 11
• Labor income Earnings and income
  Total labor market income, including bonuses, amenities, wages paid under sick and parental leave, and employer contributions to pension saving schemes.
  Registers: Income registers
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, row 12
• Hourly wage Earnings and income
  2008-2017: yearly total labor income divided by yearly hours worked. 1995-2007: average hourly wage rate in the November job; reliable only for individuals working more than 20 hours a week in that period.
  Registers: Employment/earnings registers
  Codes: >20 hours/week for 1995-2007
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, row 13
• Job tenure Firm characteristics and productivity
  Number of consecutive years in which the main job in November is registered with the same firm identifier.
  Registers: IDA employer-employee data
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, row 14
• Labor market experience Employment and labour force status
  Labor market experience measured in years since 1964.
  Registers: IDA / ATP-based experience
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, row 15
• Public sector Sector and industry
  Dummy for work within the public sector, measured by 2-digit industry codes.
  Registers: Employment registers (industry codes)
  Codes: 2-digit industry codes (specific codes not listed)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, row 16
• Union membership Other
  Dummy for union membership, measured by a positive deductible amount (union fees) reported by unions to the tax authorities.
  Registers: Tax records
  Codes: Deductible union fees > 0
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, row 17
• Sick leave Unemployment and benefits
  Share of weeks within a year in which the individual (or the employer) received sickness benefit transfers; the sick-leave labour-market state is a dummy for more than 15% of weeks in the year on sickness benefits.
  Registers: DREAM transfer register
  Codes: > 15% of weeks
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 18 and 43
• Labor market states (Employed, School, Sick Leave, DI, Other) Employment and labour force status
  Employed = full-time work while not in school, on sick leave or receiving DI; School = enrollment in a higher degree in the year; Sick Leave = >15% of weeks on sickness benefits; DI = any weeks in the year receiving disability insurance; Other = residual (mainly part-time work, other unemployment and non-participation).
  Registers: IDA; education register; DREAM
  Codes: Sick leave > 15% of weeks; DI any weeks
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 41-45
• Debt-to-income and savings-to-income ratios Wealth, debt and consumption
  Debt = debt to banks, pension funds, insurance and financial companies, credit card debt and study loans in banks, divided by labor income. Savings = mainly liquid savings: bank deposits, bond values and value of mortgage deeds, divided by labor income. Property owner = public cash valuation of owned property > 0 DKK.
  Registers: Wealth/tax registers
  Codes: Property valuation > 0 DKK
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 5, 19-20
• Highest completed education categories Education and test scores
  Years of schooling = prescribed years of study of highest completed degree counting from grade 1. Primary = pre-school, primary, preparatory courses or Danish language courses at language centers; Vocational = VET, qualifying programmes or AMU labour market educations; High School = upper secondary; Post-Secondary = short-cycle higher, vocational bachelor, bachelor, master or PhD.
  Registers: Education register (UDDA)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 6-10
• Primary school GPA (age 16) Education and test scores
  Overall GPA = average of all grades given in grade 9 (compulsory) and grade 10 (non-compulsory), normalized to 0-100; Math GPA = same for the subject Math.
  Registers: Grade registers (Statistics Denmark)
  Codes: Normalized 0-100
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 29-30
• Hospital visits and days in hospital Health care use
  Number of hospital visits (admissions, outpatient treatment and ER visits); days hospitalized, with admission and release dates for admitted patients and outpatient/ER visits coded as 1-day visits.
  Registers: National Patient Register (LPR)
  Codes: Outpatient/ER = 1 day
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Table A.1, rows 39-40
• Long-term displacement and manual jobs (mass layoffs) Unemployment and benefits
  Mass layoffs defined as in Davis and von Wachter (2011). A worker is long-term displaced if he enters long-term unemployment (official definition: 52 consecutive weeks) within two years of the mass layoff; manual jobs = Autor-Levy-Murnane manual ability requirement > 0.5 SD above the mean; automation exposure = Webb (2019) robot exposure > 0.5 SD above mean; offshoring exposure = non-offshorability index (average of O*NET decision-making and face-to-face) > 0.5 SD below mean.
  Registers: IDA; unemployment registers; DISCO occupation codes
  Codes: 52 consecutive weeks; +/-0.5 SD cutoffs
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix Section H.1

• ATP-based hours (1980-2018) Hours worked
  Hours inferred from mandatory ATP pension contributions, which employers pay based on a binned measure of hours; for monthly-paid workers annual contributions depend on monthly hours in four bins, giving 37 annual hours bins. Capped at full time in all 12 months.
  Registers: ATP pension contributions
  working paper · Section 3, footnotes 17-18
• Monthly uncapped hours (from 2008) Hours worked
  Uncapped hours worked for all workers at monthly level, available from 2008; used where precise hours variation is needed (aggregated to quarters in the promotion event study).
  Registers: Monthly payroll records
  working paper · Section 3; Section 4 Fact 3
• Job (firm x occupation cell) and job switch Occupation and job hierarchy
  Job is a firm x occupation cell; a switcher moves between firm x occupation cells after the reform. Occupations use DISCO-08 from 2010 (563 occupations), DISCO-88 1991-2009 (372) bridged with the Humlum (2021) crosswalk, and an older Danish classification before 1991 (299). Switches where more than 50% of an individual's coworkers move to the same job cell in the same year are dropped.
  Registers: Employer-employee matched data
  Codes: DISCO-08; DISCO-88; pre-1991 Danish occupation codes
  working paper · Section 3, footnote 15; Section 5.1
• Mass layoff switchers Firm characteristics and productivity
  Mass layoffs are layoffs in which firms with at least 20 employees reduce their workforce by at least 30% in a single year; switchers are workers who move firm following such a layoff. Used in an event study of log earnings vs a linear pre-layoff trend.
  Registers: Employer-employee matched data
  Codes: firm size >= 20 employees; workforce reduction >= 30% within one year
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.8 notes
• Labour earnings outcome Earnings and income
  Total labour compensation, including contributions to employer-administered retirement savings plans; outcome is the log change between 2008 and 2010 (placebo 2006-2008).
  Registers: Income tax records
  working paper · Section 5.1, footnote 26
• Reform treatment and simulated net-of-tax rate instrument Taxes and tax rates
  Treatment assigned by pre-reform baseline taxable income (labour income, transfers, pensions, alimony and certain capital income) in bins relative to the 2009 reform threshold (around the 70th percentile). The instrument is the simulated log change in the marginal net-of-tax rate from tax code changes, holding income at baseline (Gruber-Saez). Baseline sample: taxpayers with baseline income 250,000-1,000,000 DKK.
  Registers: Income tax records
  working paper · Section 5.1, footnote 27; Table 2 notes
• Promotion Occupation and job hierarchy
  Within-firm switch to an occupation cell whose median earnings are at least 10% higher (robustness 5% and 20%); promoted workers matched to unpromoted co-workers in the same firm.
  Registers: Employer-employee matched data, Monthly payroll records
  working paper · Section 4, Fact 3
• Occupational rank / top vs bottom occupations Occupation and job hierarchy
  Occupation cells (6-digit occupation codes) ranked by mean wage earnings; for top/bottom occupations the ranking is computed among workers aged 45-50 (mean, P10 and P90 of wage earnings reported per cell). Occupational rank used in balance checks orders occupation cells by their mean earnings.
  Registers: Employer-employee matched data (DISCO occupation codes)
  Codes: 6-digit DISCO occupation codes
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Table A.1 and Figure A.6 notes
• AKM firm wage premium Firm characteristics and productivity
  Firm fixed effects from an AKM model log z_it = alpha_i + psi_J(i,t) + X_it beta + nu_it, with controls for year, age and tenure-in-current-firm dummies, estimated on pre-reform data 2002-2005 for firms with at least 10 employees; estimated firm effects merged onto the 2009 tax-reform sample to measure changes in firm premia for firm switchers.
  Registers: Employer-employee matched data, Income tax records
  Codes: firms >= 10 employees; estimation window 2002-2005
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Section C and Figure A.9
• Survey hours (LFS validation) Hours worked
  Validation measure of hours: actual, uncapped hours worked from the Danish component of the EU Labour Force Survey, compared with the administrative ATP pension-based hours measure; the survey measure is much noisier, especially at the top.
  Registers: Danish Labour Force Survey (AKU), ATP pension contributions
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.1 notes
• Number of job switches (ages 20-50) Occupation and job hierarchy
  Count of job (firm x occupation cell) switches between ages 20 and 50 in a balanced panel of workers observed at every age 20-50, split by earnings percentile at age 50 (top 10%, top 1%, bottom 50%).
  Registers: Employer-employee matched data
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.3 notes
• Demographic controls (job-switcher regressions) Sample definition and timing
  Robustness controls: dummies for age, gender, marital status and number of children, alone or combined with initial job-cell fixed effects (baseline uses job-cell fixed effects only).
  Registers: Population register (BEF)
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.7 notes

• Marriage and divorce events Family links, fertility and household
  Marriage event when marital status is unmarried in year t and married in t+1; divorce event when married in t and divorced in t+1. Marital status from CIVST (G=1 married, U=0 unmarried, F=2 divorced, D=3, E=4, L=5, O=6, P=7), with CIV_VFRA giving the date since status.
  Registers: BEF (personer)
  Codes: CIVST in {G,U,F,D,E,L,O,P}; marriage: CIVST U->G; divorce: G->F; CIV_VFRA
  replication code · code/assembledat_untying.sas (marital status recode and event definitions)
• Household dissolution (divorce year) Family links, fertility and household
  Divorce year is the minimum of the formal divorce year and the first year, within 6 years before formal divorce, in which a married, never-divorced person's partner ID (FAELLE_NR) changes to a new partner or no partner.
  Registers: BEF
  Codes: FAELLE_NR (parid); divyear=min(fdivyear, firstparswitch_year), parswitch window t_ref_fdiv in [-6,0]
  replication code · code/datprep_untying.do (Define year of household dissolution)
• Couples sample Sample definition and timing
  Individuals observed from the start of their first marriage (first observed marriage event with missing prior marital-status date and no prior divorce), years 1980-2013, ages 28-58; individuals or partners with children from previous relationships are dropped.
  Registers: BEF, Fertility database (ftdb_father, ftdb_mother)
  Codes: age 28-58; year 1980-2013; other_kids==0 & other_kids_par==0
  replication code · code/assembledat_untying.sas (sel_IDS); code/datprep_untying.do
• Weekly work hours bins Hours worked
  IDA job attachment code TILKNYT recoded into weekly hours per the Statistics Denmark key: codes 0/10/20/30 -> 0, 5/15/25/35 -> 5, 4/14/24/34 -> 15, 3/13/23/33 -> 25, 2/12/22/32 -> 34, 1/11/21/31 -> 38 hours. Set to 0 for those out of the labour force with missing hours.
  Registers: IDAN
  Codes: TILKNYT: {0,10,20,30}=0; {5,15,25,35}=5; {4,14,24,34}=15; {3,13,23,33}=25; {2,12,22,32}=34; {1,11,21,31}=38
  replication code · code/datprep_untying.do lines 1-20; assembledat_untying.sas (work_vars1)
• Labour income (model-consistent) Earnings and income
  Weekly hours (from TILKNYT bins) times 49 weeks times hourly wage TIMELON; zero if hours are zero. Register labour income LONIND is also assembled (earnings), with negative values truncated to 0.
  Registers: IDAN, IDAP
  Codes: TIMELON (hourly wage), TILKNYT; LONIND (earnings); labor_income = work_hours*49*wage
  replication code · code/datprep_untying.do lines 309-316
• Out of labour force / participation Employment and labour force status
  Out of the labour force if IDA labour force status PSTILL is in 40, 41, 50, 52, 90, 92, 93 or 95; labour force participation is the complement.
  Registers: IDAP
  Codes: PSTILL in 40,41,50,52,90,92,93,95 = out of labour force
  replication code · code/datprep_untying.do (Define out of the labor force)
• Maintenance payments (observed) Family links, fertility and household
  Post-marital maintenance paid (child support and alimony) from the income register variable UNDERHOL, deflated to 2004 prices; an indicator for any positive payment is also used.
  Registers: IND (indh)
  Codes: UNDERHOL
  replication code · code/assembledat_untying.sas (inc_vars1); code/datprep_untying.do; code/maint_imp.do
• Custody and imputed child support/alimony Family links, fertility and household
  Custody counts children under 19 living in the same family ID after a divorce. Child support imputed from 2004 rules: 10,608 DKK per child times an earnings-dependent multiplier (thresholds 320k/340k/370k/500k/900k for one child, higher for 2-3 children) for children in the ex-partner's custody; alimony = 20% of (payer earnings minus child support minus max(ex-partner earnings, 90,000)), capped, only if ex-partner not remarried; total maintenance capped at one third of earnings. Earnings base = labour income + UI benefits (ARBLHU, KONTHJ, KONT_GL) in 2004 prices.
  Registers: IND (indk, indh), FAMILIE, IDAN
  Codes: ARBLHU, KONTHJ (pre-1993), KONT_GL (post-1993); FAMILIE_ID; cs_normal2004=10608
  replication code · code/maint_imp.do
• Assets Wealth, debt and consumption
  Individual and household assets from the income register wealth variables: FORM before 1997 and FORMREST_NY05 after 1997; household assets are the sum of own and partner's post-1997 assets in DKK 1000s.
  Registers: IND (indh)
  Codes: FORM (assets before 1997), FORMREST_NY05 (assets post 1997)
  replication code · code/assembledat_untying.sas (inc_vars1); code/datprep_untying.do
• Births and child identifiers Family links, fertility and household
  Children linked to fathers and mothers via the fertility database (PNRF, PNRM, PNRB) with birth year from FOED_DAG; first, second and third child IDs are assigned sequentially; birth event = child born in that year. Number of children and persons in the family from the family register.
  Registers: Fertility database (ftdb_father, ftdb_mother), FAMILIE
  Codes: PNRF, PNRM, PNRB, FOED_DAG; C_ANTBOERNF, C_ANTPERSF
  replication code · code/assembledat_untying.sas (child_vars, fam_vars)

Replication package

• Child average standardized test score Education and test scores
  Scores from nationwide math and reading tests in primary and lower secondary school (2010-2020), each standardized to mean 0 and SD 1 within cohort; for each child the average over all available standardized reading and math scores. Math covers numbers and algebra, geometry and applied mathematics; reading covers language comprehension, decoding and reading comprehension. Grade-specific scores: reading grades 2, 4, 6, 8; math grades 3, 6.
  Registers: National test data (STIL)
  Codes: overall_grade; lang2 lang4 lang6 lang8 math3 math6
  replication code · Read_me.pdf, Table 1 variable description
• Parental years of schooling and college Education and test scores
  Years of schooling of highest completed education of mother and father (and of egg donor, imputed when missing). College indicator equals 1 if more than 14 years of completed education.
  Registers: UDDA, IDAPALL
  Codes: yr_edu, yr_eduf, yr_edu_donor(_imputed); univ_m/univ_f = years > 14
  replication code · Read_me.pdf, Table 1
• Donor-conception samples Family links, fertility and household
  Children conceived by IVF are split into a non-donor IVF sample, an egg-donor sample and a sperm-donor sample; treatment timing is captured by the calendar month of first IVF treatment and clinic dummies.
  Registers: IVF register (Danish Health Data Authority), BOERN, FTDK
  Codes: one_de_ds (non-donor), de (egg donor), ds (sperm donor); first_year_month_linear; clinic
  replication code · Read_me.pdf, Table 1; Table_1_do.do
• Pre-birth parental labour income Earnings and income
  Average annual labour income (in 10,000 DKK) of mother/father (or egg donor) over the 4 years preceding the child's birth year; post-minus-pre log income change uses average labour income over the 5 years following the birth year.
  Registers: IDAPALL
  Codes: lonind_beforem4, lonind_beforef4, dif_logincm, dif_logincf
  replication code · Read_me.pdf, Table 1
• Parental leave days Family links, fertility and household
  Total days of leave taken by mother/father within two (leavedays) or five (leavedays05) years after the child's year of birth.
  Codes: leavedaysm, leavedaysf, leavedaysm05, leavedaysf05
  replication code · Read_me.pdf, Table 1
• Parental breakup Family links, fertility and household
  Equals 1 if the couple divorced within the first five years of the child's life.
  Registers: FAMILIE
  Codes: breakup5
  replication code · Read_me.pdf, Table 1
• Parental immigrant status Immigration and origin
  Indicator that mother/father/egg donor is a first- or second-generation immigrant.
  Registers: IDAPALL
  Codes: danem, danef, don_danem
  replication code · Read_me.pdf, Table 1
• Birth outcomes Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Low birth weight is below 2500 grams; prematurity is pregnancy length below 37 weeks; indicator for Apgar score below 10.
  Codes: low_bw, prematurity, apgar_less_10
  replication code · Read_me.pdf, Table 1

Replication package

• IQ (talent proxy) Education and test scores
  Score on the Danish military conscription test Boerge Prien's Proeve, taken mostly at age 18; data go back to 1995 and cover most males entering the workforce or college after 1995 (about 500,000 males).
  Registers: Military conscription test (Boerge Prien Proeve)
  paper · Section 2.2
• PhD enrolment Education and test scores
  Enrolment in a PhD programme from the PHD dataset, which records subject, enrolment date, graduation date and funding source of PhD students.
  Registers: PHD, IDA
  paper · Section 2.2
• Inventor Firm characteristics and productivity
  Individual with at least one European Patent Office patent; Danish inventors matched to IDA using a DST disambiguation algorithm (about 75% matched).
  Registers: EPO patents, IDA
  paper · Section 2.2; Section 2.3 (Determinants of Being an Inventor)
• Parental income percentile Earnings and income
  Child's father's income percentile, used as the measure of parental income (correlation with child IQ of 0.18).
  Registers: IDA
  paper · Section 2.3
• Analysis period Sample definition and timing
  Background data available 1980-2013, but the intersection of the IDA, FIDA, PHD, IQ, R&D funding and patent datasets covers 2001-2013, which is the analysis window (about 32 million employer-employee observations, 10,000 inventors, 37,000 PhDs).
  Registers: IDA, FIDA, PHD
  paper · Section 2.2
• R&D subsidies Firm characteristics and productivity
  R&D project funding following the expansion of government R&D support from 2002, including funding through the Innovation Danmark programme and specific R&D subsidies (the programme also records funding to education).
  Registers: Innovation Danmark R&D funding data (DST)
  paper · Section 2.2

Replication package

• Income concept for actual and perceived rank Earnings and income
  Income earned in 2017 as on the tax statement: wage income plus self-employment income plus taxable benefits and transfers (mainly UI benefits, disability benefits and social assistance); excludes capital income, deductions and taxes. Averages 96.0% of Statistics Denmark total income.
  Registers: IND
  Codes: inc_reg compared with perindkialt_13 (total personal income)
  paper · Section 2 (Income block); Replication_Code.do line 173
• Actual income position (rank) Earnings and income
  Percentile rank of the respondent's register income within each reference group, computed from tax-return income of all members of the group.
  Registers: IND, BEF, UDDA, RAS
  Codes: position_coh_reg, position_sex_reg, position_per_mun_reg, position_per_edu_reg, position_per_sec_reg
  paper · Figure 2 notes; Table 1 notes
• Large reference groups Sample definition and timing
  Cohort: born the same year. Gender: same birth year and gender. Municipality: same birth year and current municipality. Education: same birth year and education level (basic, upper secondary, vocational, short-cycle higher, bachelor, master/PhD) using DISCED. Sector: same birth year and same sector (construction, real estate, business services, finance and insurance, trade and transport, manufacturing, information and communication, culture, agriculture, public work) based on DB07.
  Registers: BEF, UDDA, RAS
  Codes: DISCED (ISCED-based) education levels; DB07 sector codes
  paper · Table 2
• Neighbours Geography and neighbourhood
  For apartment dwellers, people aged 25-65 living in the same stairwell; for house dwellers, people aged 25-65 living on the same road. Neighbour links incl. road length were created by Statistics Denmark's GEO team; neighbour car and house value ranks use wealth registers.
  Registers: BEF, IND, FORMBIL, FORMEJER, FORMAND
  paper · Table 2; README.docx (analysisI.dta construction)
• Schoolmates Education and test scores
  People born the same year who attended the same school in the year they turned 15.
  Registers: BEF, UDDA, IND
  paper · Table 2; README.docx
• Co-workers Firm characteristics and productivity
  People working in the same workplace, defined as a single address entity (each location of a multi-location firm is a separate workplace).
  Registers: RAS, IND
  paper · Table 2; README.docx
• Unemployment shock Unemployment and benefits
  Three or more months of unemployment in at least one year of the shock period 2012-2017, among respondents with no such shock in the pre-shock period 2008-2011 and in the workforce for the whole ten-year period.
  Registers: IDAP, RAS
  Codes: unemp_12_17 with restriction unemp_08_11==0 & wf08_17<3
  paper · Section 3.3, footnote 21; Replication_Code.do lines 1839-1843
• Disability shock Unemployment and benefits
  Starting to receive disability insurance benefits, without having received them before, in one of the years 2012-2017 according to IDA.
  Registers: IDAP
  Codes: disab_12_17 with disab_08_11==0
  paper · Section 3.3, footnote 21
• Hospitalization shock Health care use
  At least one emergency room visit or hospital visit by GP referral in 2012-2017, excluding visits due to congenital diseases, pregnancy or routine checks; sample excludes those with such a shock in 2008-2011.
  Registers: LPR
  Codes: healt_12_17 with healt_08_11==0
  paper · Section 3.3, footnote 21
• Promotion Occupation and job hierarchy
  Switching from a job as a regular employee in the pre-shock period (2008-2011) to a management position in 2012-2017; in the code a manager is DISCO first digit 1.
  Registers: RAS, IDAP
  Codes: manag_12_17 with manag_08_11==0; manager = substr(disco_kode,1,1)=="1"
  replication code · Replication_Code.do lines 1519-1521, 1892; paper footnote 21
• Survey population Sample definition and timing
  Individuals born 1969-1973 invited via Digital Post; main analysis uses 9,415 respondents who completed the survey (Feb-Mar 2019), linked to registers on CPR.
  Registers: BEF, IND, UDDA, RAS
  replication code · README.docx (analysisI.dta, analysisII.dta)

Replication package

• Log wage rate Earnings and income
  Annual total salary declared by the employer to the tax authorities divided by total hours worked by the worker in that year; assigned to the first week of the year or the first week of a new employment spell starting within the year. Hours are inferred by Statistics Denmark from mandatory pension contributions that depend on weekly hours.
  Registers: Danish matched employer-employee data (MEE)
  working paper · Section 2, footnote 7
• Full-time employment vs non-employment spell Employment and labour force status
  Weekly employment and non-employment spells 1985-2013; spells with less than an average of 25 work hours per week are treated as non-employment spells (to keep only full-time workers). Non-employment is coded as firm ID 0.
  Registers: Danish matched employer-employee data (MEE)
  working paper · Section 2 and footnote 6; Appendix E.1
• Analysis panel Sample definition and timing
  Panel starts in 1987 (1985-1986 used to classify tenure of the 1987 stock of jobs); only employment spells starting after the individual finished the highest level of education are kept, and spells starting after age 50 are removed. Workers are drawn from the 1987 working-age population or enter in the first week of the year after their last year of schooling. About 4 million workers and 400,000 firms.
  Registers: Danish matched employer-employee data (MEE)
  working paper · Section 2; Appendix E.1
• Education groups Education and test scores
  Based on normed years of education of the highest completed degree: low is below 12 years, medium is exactly 12 years, high is above 12 years.
  Registers: Education register
  working paper · Section 5
• Tenure and potential experience groups Sample definition and timing
  Short tenure is less than 100 weeks of employment (26 weeks for non-employment spells). Potential experience is time since leaving school (age minus age upon leaving school), grouped as under 5, 5-10, 11-15 and over 15 years; calendar time in 3-year intervals (9 groups 1987-2013), giving 72 covariate cells.
  Registers: Danish matched employer-employee data (MEE)
  working paper · Section 2; Section 5
• Public/private status of firm Sector and industry
  Time-invariant firm characteristic indicating public or private status, used as observed firm covariate.
  Registers: Danish matched employer-employee data (MEE)
  working paper · Section 5

• Car types (green/brown x heavy/light) Other
  Cars are split by whether weight is above or below the median for the car's vintage cohort, then within each half by whether fuel efficiency is above (green) or below (brown) the median, giving four types; attributes are averaged within type. Cars are grouped into 25 age groups from new to 24+ years (cars over 22 years dropped from estimation).
  Registers: Car ownership register (Statistics Denmark)
  working paper · Appendix F.1 (Car types); Section 6.2
• Household types Family links, fertility and household
  Eight household types from couple vs single, high vs low work distance, and high vs low income, where the income split is at the median income within the demographic cell.
  Registers: Demographic and income registers
  working paper · Appendix F.1 (Household types); Table 2
• High work distance Geography and neighbourhood
  Based on the Danish tax deduction for travel distance to work, which applies only to full-time workers living more than 12 km (each way) from their workplace; households with the deduction are classed as high work distance (slightly under half of Danes).
  Registers: Tax records (commuting deduction)
  working paper · Appendix F.1 (Household types)
• Kilometres driven Other
  Driving measured from odometer readings recorded at mandatory vehicle inspections, which occur biannually from car age 4 (ages 4, 6, 8, 10, ...).
  Registers: Vehicle inspection odometer data
  working paper · Appendix F.1 and footnote 32
• Scrappage Other
  Scrappage is not observed directly: a vehicle is defined as scrapped if an ownership spell ends and no other ownership spell ever begins afterwards (ownership register extract from September 2011, last sample year 2008, so at least about 3 years without an owner). Accidents are not observed.
  Registers: Car ownership register
  working paper · Appendix F.1
• New car registration tax Taxes and tax rates
  T(P) = 1.25 x [tau1 x min(P, K) + tau2 x max(P - K, 0)], with 25% VAT on the price including tax; in 2008 K = DKK 81,000, tau1 = 105% and tau2 = 180%. Fuel prices are country averages from eof.dk.
  Registers: Fuel prices (eof.dk)
  working paper · Appendix F.1
• Estimation sample Sample definition and timing
  Universe of Danish households and all privately owned cars, 1996-2008 (estimation on holdings 1997-2008, about 39 million household-year observations of car ownership transitions).
  Registers: Demographic registers, Car ownership register
  working paper · Appendix F.1; Section 6

• Hedonic expected house value Wealth, debt and consumption
  ln(P_it) regressed on time x municipality effects, apartment indicator, and property characteristics: ln(lot size), ln(interior size), number of rooms, bathrooms, showers, unoccupied-at-sale dummy, ln(building age), rural dummy, historic-building dummy, ln(distance to nearest major city), all interacted with the apartment indicator, plus a third-order polynomial of the previous-year (biennial) SKAT tax-assessed value. R2 = 0.88 on sold listings (N = 114,303). Variants add repeat-sales residuals and lagged renovation deductions.
  Registers: BBR/BOL, EJVK, EJSA, EJMT
  online appendix · Online Appendix C.1; Figure L.4 notes; E
• Listing premium Wealth, debt and consumption
  l = ln(L) - predicted ln(P), where L is the initial listing price and predicted ln(P) is from the hedonic model.
  Registers: RealView, SKAT, BBR
  paper · Section 4.1
• Potential gain (vs reference price) Wealth, debt and consumption
  G = predicted ln(P) - ln(R), where R is the nominal original purchase price of the property; measurable only for properties bought in 1992 or later.
  Registers: SKAT property transactions, BBR
  paper · Sections 3.5 and 4.1
• Potential home equity Wealth, debt and consumption
  H = predicted ln(P) - ln(M), where M is the outstanding mortgage balance reported by the household's mortgage bank that year (multiple mortgages on a property summed; LTV and rate weighted); sellers with H < 20% are classed as potentially facing a binding down-payment constraint.
  Registers: Danmarks Nationalbank mortgage data
  paper · Sections 3.3 and 4.1
• Listings sample Sample definition and timing
  From 615,040 RealView listings of owner-occupied housing (excluding cooperative housing): drop unmatched in registers (-107,679), no reference price i.e. purchased before 1992 (-144,962), owner ID not uniquely determined (-71,876), non-household buyer i.e. government/company/organization (-10,382), foreclosures (-6,416), extreme prices (<100,000 DKK or >20,000,000 DKK in 2015 prices, or flagged extreme by Statistics Denmark; -5,499), owner ID not found, missing lot size or hedonic characteristics, listing date before previous purchase date, intra-family/special-circumstance sales, missing listing price; then drop summer houses (-24,098) and professional investors owning more than 3 properties (-18,312). Final: 214,103 listings 2009-2016 (172,225 with mortgage, 41,878 without), 191,507 households, 178,933 properties; 70.4% sold, 29.6% retracted. Extensive-margin stock sample: 5,538,052 observations of 807,345 properties.
  Registers: RealView listings, EJSA, EJER, EJVK, BBR/BOL, REAL, BEF
  Codes: price bounds 100,000-20,000,000 DKK (2015 prices); >3 properties = investor
  online appendix · Online Appendix C.5 and Table L.1
• Household Family links, fertility and household
  Households consist of one or two adults and any children below age 25 living at the same address, linked via the CPR family identification number; individual income and wealth are aggregated to the household. Household education = average years of education across all adults in the household; household age = average age in the household. The seller is the owner (CPR) at the beginning of the year of the transaction.
  Registers: CPR/BEF, UDDA, IND, EJER
  Codes: children <25
  online appendix · Online Appendix C.1, C.4 (fn 5), Figure L.29 notes
• Mortgage balance and loan-to-value Wealth, debt and consumption
  Danmarks Nationalbank loan-level mortgage data (via Finance Denmark), annual 2009-2016, covering all mortgage banks: principal, outstanding balance, LTV and interest rate, with borrower CPR and property number. Multiple mortgages on a property are summed, with balance-weighted average interest rate and LTV.
  Registers: REAL (Boligfinansiering)
  online appendix · Online Appendix C.3
• Renovation tax deductions (BoligJob) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Proxy for maintenance/renovation: claimed BoligJob ('Boligjobordningen') tax deductions for labour costs of service work in the home, available from 2011, aggregated by household and linked to the seller; maximum 15,000 DKK per adult 2011-2015, then 12,000 DKK for maintenance/renovation and 6,000 DKK for other services (2016-2018). Used as 1-year lag (2012-2016) and 3- and 5-year cumulative lags.
  Registers: INDSLUT (Servicebidragsregister)
  online appendix · Online Appendix E.3.1
• Liquid and net financial assets Wealth, debt and consumption
  Liquid financial assets = cash, stocks and bonds; net financial assets = liquid financial assets minus short-term non-mortgage liabilities (mainly unsecured debt). Used as household controls with age and education length.
  Registers: IND (SKAT income and wealth records)
  online appendix · Online Appendix K.1
• Share of apartments and row houses (IV) Geography and neighbourhood
  Instrument: share of apartments and row houses (as defined in the BBR) listed in a given sub-market (municipality), capturing homogeneity of the housing stock.
  Registers: BBR
  online appendix · Online Appendix (IV section; Figure L.14)

• Exposure to MFA quota removal (treatment) Trade and offshoring
  A firm is exposed (treated) if as of 1999 it had domestic production in any 8-digit CN good for which China would no longer face a quota upon WTO entry; quota categories are matched to 8-digit CN goods and firms producing quota goods are identified from the domestic production database reporting establishment sales by 10-digit product. Workers are exposed if employed by such a firm in 1999.
  Registers: IDA, VARS (domestic production / industrial commodity statistics)
  Codes: Stata variable affwd (1=Exposed, 0=Non-exposed); clustering on cvrnr99 (1999 firm id)
  working paper · Section 2.1; Analysis1.do lines 25-26
• 1999 full-time private-sector worker cohort Sample definition and timing
  Cohort of workers who in 1999 were full-time employed in Denmark's private sector, had positive wages and were aged 18-56; part-time workers are excluded. IDA covers persons aged 15-70, establishments with at least one employee and jobs active in the last week of November. The textile sample is the roughly 10,000 such workers employed in the textile and clothing industry in 1999; the economy-wide sample excludes public administration, education and health.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 2.2 and footnote 49
• Birth event Family links, fertility and household
  Indicator for whether a worker fathers or mothers a newborn baby in a given year (for the IV specification: parent of a new child over 2000-2007). Child births come from Statistics Denmark's Fertility Database, which links parents' personal IDs to every child born in Denmark.
  Registers: Fertility Database (Statistics Denmark)
  Codes: Stata variable DBirth
  working paper · Section 2.3; Table 1 notes; Section 6 eq. (4)
• Marriage and divorce events Family links, fertility and household
  Indicators for whether a worker marries or divorces in a given year, taken from the Central Population Register and linked by personal identifier. The divorce analysis uses workers married as of 1999; marriage analysis uses workers unmarried in 1999 (1999 dropped from marriage-rate plots). Cohabiting partners are distinguished from married spouses.
  Registers: CPR (Central Population Register)
  Codes: Stata variables EMARA (marriage), EDIVA (divorce), mar99
  working paper · Section 2.3; Table 1 notes; Analysis1.do labels
• Parental leave take Family links, fertility and household
  Indicator for taking childcare/parental leave in a year, from childcare leave spells in Statistics Denmark's social benefits statistics, part of the income statistics registers.
  Registers: SHSS (Sammenhaengende socialstatistik), OF (Offentligt forsoergede)
  Codes: Stata variable DParL
  working paper · Section 2.3
• Fertile age Family links, fertility and household
  Fertile-age sample is women below 37 and men below 46 years as of 1999 (fertile age limit taken as 36 for women and 45 for men). The published-version code instead uses an age 18-39 indicator (age1839) for fertility heterogeneity.
  Registers: IDA, BEF
  working paper · Footnote 25; Table 4 notes
• Unemployment and UI benefits Unemployment and benefits
  Unemployment is the percentage of annual time in unemployment. UI benefits are the sum of unemployment insurance, education allowance for the unemployed and other UI benefits, deflated by CPI and expressed relative to the worker's average 1996-1999 monthly earnings.
  Registers: IDA, IND
  Codes: arblhu (unemployment insurance), quddydl (education allowance for unemployed), andakas (other UI benefits); normalised by normsal9699
  replication code · Analysis1.do lines 684-705 (Table A5); WP Table 8 notes
• Earnings and personal income Earnings and income
  Annual labour earnings (salary) and personal income, the latter including unemployment insurance and government transfers; in the cumulative textile-worker regressions both are expressed as multiples of the worker's own 1999 value. Earnings at the 1999 firm are also analysed separately.
  Registers: IDA, IND
  Codes: Stata variables anrsalary, anrsal99, anrperinc, anrperinc99
  working paper · Table 8 notes; Analysis1.do Table 3
• Occupation groups (manager, machine operator) Occupation and job hierarchy
  1999 occupation grouped from DISCO-88 major groups: 1 Managers; 2-3 Professionals and technicians; 4-5 Clerks and service workers; 7 Craft workers; 8 Operators; 9 Labourers; set missing if 2-digit code is 99. Machine operator is DISCO 2-digit group 82.
  Registers: IDA
  Codes: DISCO-88 1-digit (disc1_99) groups {1},{2,3},{4,5},{7},{8},{9}; disc2_99==82 machine operator; disc2_99==99 missing
  replication code · Analysis1.do lines 7-22
• Industry import penetration from China (economy-wide) Trade and offshoring
  Change in Chinese import penetration at the six-digit industry level, instrumented with Chinese imports in other advanced countries (Australia, Finland, Germany, Japan, Netherlands, New Zealand, Switzerland, USA), log average distance of Denmark's import partners in 1996, and the share of retail trading firms; two-digit industry fixed effects included.
  Registers: IDA, Foreign trade statistics
  Codes: Stata IP_9909 instrumented by iv8del6, lntdistw
  working paper · Section 6 and footnote 51; Analysis2.do Table 5
• Firm separation rate Firm characteristics and productivity
  Percentage of the workplace's 1998 employees who are not employed in the workplace in 1999.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Footnote 40

Replication package

• Skilled nurse / unskilled nurse / doctor (by education) Occupation and job hierarchy
  Health workers are classified by vocational education code in IDAP: skilled nurses (general nurse BSc, specialist nurse training, midwife BSc, nurse MSc); unskilled nurses (health and care workers); medical doctors (MD, PhD; medical BSc 7172 excluded). Doctors' first 7 years of experience are treated as residency and not counted as doctors.
  Registers: IDAP (IDAPALL)
  Codes: ERHAUDD (or HFAUDD in SAS extract): skilled nurse 5166-5173, 5175, 5180, 5181, 8634; unskilled nurse 5146-5150, 5152; doctor 7170, 7180
  replication code · programs/sas/dataprep.sas; programs/stata/Prepare_microdata_healthworkers_by_industry.do; Prepare_aggregate_county_exposure.do
• Hospital and nursing home employment Sector and industry
  Workplace industry from IDAS (BRANCHE1, else BRANCHE03, else BRANCHE07) merged by establishment (LBNR) and year. Hospitals = industry 851100; nursing homes = 853140 or 853150. Missing codes are filled backwards within establishment and, for nursing homes, backwards by person within the same firm (CVRNR); other employed = other sectors; no workplace type = unemployment/nonparticipation. New freelancers (missing LBNR) among unskilled nurses keep their previous sector.
  Registers: IDAS, IDAP
  Codes: BRANCHE 851100 = hospital; BRANCHE 853140, 853150 = nursing home
  replication code · programs/stata/Prepare_microdata_healthworkers_by_industry.do (steps 0-4)
• Eligibility: young children Family links, fertility and household
  Indicator that the age of the youngest child in the family is 8 or younger, from the family register (C_ALDYNGST, else ALDYNGST).
  Registers: FAMILIE, BEF (Personer)
  Codes: youngkids = ageyoungest <= 8 (C_ALDYNGST / ALDYNGST)
  replication code · programs/stata/Prepare_microdata_healthworkers_by_industry.do
• Leave take-up and exposure Unemployment and benefits
  Leave = worker with an establishment in t-1 has none in t, or is on maternity leave at end of November (SHSS maternity benefit months: November value 30, or positive in both November and December). Individual take-up is estimated by regressing leave on age-of-youngest-child dummies interacted with 1995 vs 1993; predicted take-up is assigned to workers based on prior-year child age, and county-sector exposure = summed expected take-up / number of active workers of that type in 1993.
  Registers: SHSS, IDAP, FAMILIE
  Codes: SHSS: BEL_BAR, VARMMSF11, VARMMSF12; child-care leave VAR_ORL_BP, VARMMO1-12
  replication code · programs/stata/Prepare_microdata_healthworkers_by_industry.do; Prepare_estimates_individual_takeup.do; Prepare_aggregate_county_exposure.do
• County Geography and neighbourhood
  County assigned from workplace municipality (AKOM) for employed workers, otherwise residence municipality, using pre-2007 municipality code ranges mapped to 15 counties.
  Registers: IDAP
  Codes: Municipality codes 101-147 = county 1; 151-189 = 2; 201-237 = 3; 251-271 = 4; 301-345 = 5; 351-397 = 6; 400-409 = 7; 421-499 = 8; 501-545 = 9; 551-577 = 10; 601-631 = 11; 651-685 = 12; 701-751 = 13; 761-793 = 14; 801-861 = 15
  replication code · programs/stata/Prepare_aggregate_county_exposure.do
• 30-day readmission Health care use
  Among inpatient (patient type 0) stays of 100 days or less, a readmission occurs if the next admission (or scheduled referral date) of the same person is within 30 days after discharge, starting at least one day after discharge; same-day readmission counts only if referred by a GP to the same hospital. Set to missing if the patient died before discharge.
  Registers: LPR
  Codes: C_PATTYPE == 0; D_INDDTO, D_UDDTO, D_HENDTO, C_UDM == 1, C_SGH
  replication code · programs/stata/Prepare_hospitalsample_PartA.do
• AMI 30-day readmission and mortality Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Patients aged 65+ with primary diagnosis acute myocardial infarction; index admissions exclude those with an ischemic heart admission in the preceding 365 days. 30-day mortality = death within 30 days of admission (DAR).
  Registers: LPR, DAR
  Codes: AMI: ICD-8 4109, 41099; ICD-10 DI21, DI22. Ischemic: ICD-8 410-414; ICD-10 DI20-DI25
  replication code · programs/stata/Prepare_hospitalsample_PartA.do
• Nursing home residents and mortality Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Nursing home addresses are identified from deaths registered in a nursing home (place-of-death institution code 2) 1990-2000, using the first 14 characters of the address code (BOPIKOM) within municipality, keeping addresses where no children live; residents aged 60+ living at those addresses are nursing home residents, and their mortality is the outcome.
  Registers: DAR, BEF (Personer)
  Codes: C_INSTITUT == "2"; address = BKOM + substr(BOPIKOM,1,14)
  replication code · programs/stata/Prepare_elderly_data.do

Replication package

• Crime (convictions and charges) Crime
  Charges or convictions for offences against the criminal code from the Central Police Register, excluding traffic offences; convictions (court rulings of guilt) are the preferred measure. Charges and convictions are dated by the date the crime was committed (exact crime dates available from 1990); records are observed even after deletion from the individual's criminal record.
  Registers: Central Police Register (crime register)
  paper · Section II.A and footnote 7
• Crime categories Crime
  Property crime: theft, fencing, aggravated vandalism, fraud, burglary, forgery, economic crimes. Violent crime: simple violence (assault), severe or life-threatening violence, threats, violence against or obstructing a public servant, failure to help a person in danger, coercion, attempted murder or homicide. Other crime: drug possession and sale, possession of weapons/explosives, false testimony, sexual crimes.
  Registers: Central Police Register
  paper · Footnote 8; online Table A1 (code breakdown, not read)
• Young first-time father sample / treatment Family links, fertility and household
  Males who father their first child at age 20 or younger, children born 1991-2004 (birth and demographic registers), with information on both parents from the birth for up to 5 subsequent years, matched uniquely to a neighbourhood; treatment is the first child being a son. Fathers in neighbourhoods with more than one young father having a first child in the same year are excluded.
  Registers: Birth register, BEF
  paper · Section II.B and footnote 9
• Neighbourhood Geography and neighbourhood
  Neighbourhoods follow the classification documented in Damm and Schultz-Nielsen (2008), constructed in 2004, linked to individuals through anonymised home address identifiers in the residential register; the largest and smallest 5% of neighbourhoods are excluded from most analyses.
  Registers: Residential register, BEF
  paper · Section II.B
• Peer group and peer crime Crime
  Peers are all males within +/-3 years of the focal father's age living in the father's neighbourhood on January 1 of the year the child is born (alternatively all males aged 14-25 at the birth), regardless of later moves; the father and his family members are excluded. Peer crime is their convictions/charges.
  Registers: Residential register, BEF, Central Police Register
  paper · Section II.B; footnote 5
• Neighbourhood victimisation Crime
  Based on individuals who report having been the victim of a crime (register available from 2001); victim sample includes all individuals living in the father's neighbourhood at the time of the birth, counting the number of victims in each neighbourhood.
  Registers: Victim register
  paper · Section II.B (victim sample) and footnote 10

• Weekly labour market state Employment and labour force status
  Weekly spell data 1985-2003 for all individuals aged 15-74 with states employed, unemployed, self-employed, retired and non-participation. Unemployment = receiving unemployment insurance benefits or social assistance; non-participation is the residual (not observed in any register). Unemployment and non-participation are aggregated into non-employment.
  Registers: Weekly spell data (built from Statistics Denmark registers), IDA
  working paper · IZA DP 9975, Section 6 (Data)
• Hourly wage Earnings and income
  Hourly wage measure of Lund and Vejlin (2015), which improves on IDA's annual average hourly wage for the job held in the last week of November; log wages are detrended by gender-education groups conditional on experience.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 6, footnote 21; Section 6.1
• Establishment (job type) Firm characteristics and productivity
  Job types are establishments (not firms). Statistics Denmark's establishment identifier is the same across years if one of three criteria is met: same owner and industry; same owner and workforce; or same workforce and either same address or same industry. A job is an employment spell within an establishment.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 6, footnote 22
• Job-to-job transition Employment and labour force status
  Transition between two establishments with a very short intermediate non-employment spell: non-employment spells of 2 weeks or less are allocated to the first employment spell; non-employment spells of 12 weeks or less between jobs at the same establishment are overwritten as employment (recalls). Transitions to/from establishments with missing ID and from closing or mass-layoff establishments are ignored.
  Registers: Weekly spell data, IDA
  working paper · Section 6 and 6.1
• Mass layoff / closing establishment Firm characteristics and productivity
  Mass layoff: establishment has more than 15 workers in year t and less than 30 percent of them left in year t+1. Closing: establishment no longer observed in the data.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 6.1, footnote 28
• Involuntary separation (survey) Unemployment and benefits
  From the Danish Work Environment Cohort Study (1995 and 2000), whether the job spell in November 5 years earlier ended due to the employer or the employee; matched to register data to form a moment identifying the probability of an immediate offer after job destruction.
  Registers: Danish Work Environment Cohort Study, IDA
  working paper · Section 6
• Estimation sample Sample definition and timing
  Workers censored after age 55 and when entering retirement or self-employment; spells before labour market entry (time of highest completed education, not observed in education later, or age 19) dropped; workers with errors in education information or gaps in spell histories (e.g. missing IDA year) dropped.
  Registers: Weekly spell data, IDA
  working paper · Section 6.1

• Household (tax unit) and married status Family links, fertility and household
  Household id is the family id when the person's spouse id equals the cohabitation partner id and civil status is in the married range (up to 2007, from FAIN); from 2008 from BEF using spouse id = partner id and civil status G or P. Persons not so linked form their own household. Only persons aged 20+ are kept and wealth is summed within household.
  Registers: FAIN, BEF
  Codes: FAIN (<=2007): aegtefaelle_id == c_faelle_id, c_status 2-5, hhid = c_familie_id; BEF (>=2008): aegte_id == efalle, civst in {G, P}; alder >= 20
  replication code · Empirical Analysis/DD_make_hh_ids.do
• Household taxable wealth (outcome) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Household net taxable wealth = sum over household members aged 20+ of the wealth variable FORM from the income-tax register (INDH); outcome is log(FORM). Portfolio shares use INDK components: equity share = listed stocks / total assets, housing share = (mortgage deeds + real estate value) / total assets.
  Registers: INDH, INDK
  Codes: FORM (INDH); share_tx_equities = KURSAKT/QAKTIVF; share_tx_housing = (KURSPANT+KOEJD)/QAKTIVF; other INDK fields: FORMSK, LOFTFORM, QPASSIV, PRIGALD, KONTANT, KURSOBL, INDESTPI
  replication code · Empirical Analysis/DD_base_data.do, section 1
• Wealth tax exemption threshold and marginal wealth tax Taxes and tax rates
  Annual exemption threshold (allowance) by year; for couples it equals 2 x single allowance, except 1989-1992 when couples' allowance uses a separate married allowance x 2. Household marginal wealth tax rate tau_it = statutory rate if FORM exceeds the household allowance, else 0. Bunching analysis uses distance b = FORM - allowance, deflated, in DKK 20,000 bins from -540,000 to 540,000.
  Registers: INDH
  Codes: Allowance (DKK): 1980-81 1,000,000; 1982 1,083,000; 1983 1,158,900; 1984 1,204,900; 1985 1,229,200; 1986 1,253,500; 1987 1,278,700; 1988 1,329,900; 1989 1,383,600; 1990 1,424,500; 1991 1,452,700; 1992 1,482,100; 1993 1,534,500; 1994 1,580,500; 1995 1,592,000; 1996 2,400,000; married: 1989-90 811,500x2, 1991 1,249,600x2, 1992-96 2x single
  replication code · Empirical Analysis/DD_base_data.do section 2.2; bunching_base_data.do
• Ceiling DD treatment (unbound by tax ceiling) Taxes and tax rates
  X = wealth tax actually paid (FORMSK) / theoretical wealth tax ((FORM - allowance) x tax rate). Treatment: household in top 1% of the wealth distribution with X > 0.99 in every pre-reform year of the window (e.g. 1982-1988), i.e. not bound by the tax ceiling; control: top 1% with X < 0.80 (bound by ceiling). Households above the 99.99th percentile excluded. In the panel, status is re-coded post-reform using X, LOFTFORM > 0 and wealth relative to allowance.
  Registers: INDK, INDH, FAIN
  Codes: treatmt_2e_X80: X > .99 and top1 in 1982-1988; control_2e_X80: X < .80 and top1; drop form_pctile > .9999
  replication code · Empirical Analysis/DD_balance_and_treatment_status.do section 3.4; DD_base_data.do section 2.3
• Couples DD treatment Taxes and tax rates
  Treatment: married households with wealth between the (single) allowance and 2 x allowance in each pre-reform year (1988 and earlier years depending on window), which became exempt when the couples' threshold doubled in 1989; controls: (c1) singles with wealth in the same band, (c4) married couples in the top 5% with wealth below the allowance, or (c5) singles with wealth between allowance/2 and allowance.
  Registers: INDH, FAIN
  Codes: treatmt_c1*: married & allowance <= FORM <= 2*allowance; control_c1*: unmarried, same band; control_c4*: married & FORM < allowance & top5; control_c5*: unmarried & allowance/2 <= FORM <= allowance
  replication code · Empirical Analysis/DD_balance_and_treatment_status.do section 3.3
• Balanced panel 1980-1996 Sample definition and timing
  Households (persons 20+ aggregated by household id) observed with strictly positive aggregate wealth FORM in all 17 years 1980-1996.
  Registers: INDH, FAIN
  Codes: drop if form <= 0 | missing; keep if _N == 17 (balanced_1980_96)
  replication code · Empirical Analysis/DD_balance_and_treatment_status.do section 2
• Self-employment / business income indicator (bunching) Earnings and income
  Household flagged as self-employed if business profit (NETOVSKUD_GL) is nonzero; a broader 'ext' flag also uses nonzero values of EGNKAPVK, UDLFKURS, UDLIND2 or UDLIND3 (foreign/business-related components).
  Registers: INDH, INDK
  Codes: selv = netovskud_gl != 0; ext = netovskud_gl!=0 | egnkapvk!=0 | udlfkurs!=0 | udlind2!=0 | udlind3!=0
  replication code · Empirical Analysis/bunching_base_data.do

Replication package

• Refinancing event Wealth, debt and consumption
  A refinancing occurs when a household changes from one fixed-rate mortgage to another mortgage (fixed- or adjustable-rate) on the same property; terminations from moves, death or divorce are handled separately as mortgage termination. Annual loan data are expanded to quarters using mortgage issue dates.
  Registers: Danmarks Nationalbank mortgage data, CPR
  working paper · Section 2.2.B Sample selection
• Cash-out refinancing Wealth, debt and consumption
  A refinancing associated with an increase in mortgage principal of 10% or more.
  Registers: Danmarks Nationalbank mortgage data
  working paper · Section 2.1
• Refinancing incentive (ADL threshold) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Interest rate spread = coupon rate on old mortgage minus yield on a newly available mortgage of roughly the same maturity. Threshold from the Agarwal, Driscoll and Laibson (2013) closed form with baseline interest-rate volatility 0.0074 and discount rate 5%; incentive = spread minus threshold. Household-specific mortgage termination probability (from a probit on moves/death/divorce terminations) enters the threshold. Robustness: volatility 0.0037, discount rate 2.5%, constant 10% termination probability, Chen and Ling (1989) thresholds.
  Registers: Danmarks Nationalbank loan-level mortgage data
  Codes: sigma=0.0074 (baseline); discount rate 0.05 (baseline)
  online appendix · Table B2; Appendices F-I, K-L
• Household Family links, fertility and household
  'Single' households have only one adult living at the address (~13% of sample); 'Married' households have two legally bound adults, including registered same-sex partnerships. 'Children in family' = children in household; 'Immigrant' = an immigrant in the household; 'Getting married' = change in marital status over the sample; 'Having children' = child born within the last 12 months.
  Registers: Population register (CPR/BEF)
  online appendix · Table B3 notes
• Single fixed-rate mortgage sample Sample definition and timing
  All Danish households with an unchanging number of household members and a single fixed-rate mortgage at the beginning of each year 2010-2017; refinancing measured as a quarterly dummy. Robustness samples exclude cash-out and maturity-extension refinancings, exclude FRM-to-ARM refinancers, or restrict to mortgages over DKK 250,000 with horizon of at least 20 years.
  Registers: Danmarks Nationalbank loan-level mortgage data
  Codes: mortgage > DKK 250,000 and horizon >= 20 (robustness)
  online appendix · Appendices C-E
• Financial literacy Education and test scores
  'Financially literate' = a household member has a degree in finance or professional financial-industry training. 'Family financially literate' = non-resident parents, siblings, in-laws or children of the household are financially literate.
  Registers: Education register (UDDA), Population register
  online appendix · Table B3 notes
• Ranked household characteristics Wealth, debt and consumption
  Ranks computed each year across all sample households, normalized to [-0.5, 0.5]: age = age of oldest household member; education = years needed to reach the highest education of any household member (12 = high school, 16 = Bachelor's, 18 = Master's, 20 = PhD); income = total taxable household income; financial wealth = cash, bonds, stocks and mutual funds less non-mortgage debt; housing assets = value of properties. Specifications add a nonlinear transform f(x) of each rank.
  Registers: Tax register (income, wealth), Education register (UDDA), Population register
  Codes: education years: 12/16/18/20
  online appendix · Tables B3, B5 notes
• Mortgage termination probability Wealth, debt and consumption
  Probit of a monthly dummy for full prepayment/termination (moving, death, divorce, etc.) on household demographic dummies and rank variables (with nonlinear transforms), fitted on all households with unchanging membership and a fixed-rate mortgage 2010-2017; fitted values feed the ADL threshold.
  Registers: Danmarks Nationalbank loan-level mortgage data, Population register
  online appendix · Table B1, Figure B1

Replication package

• Net wealth Wealth, debt and consumption
  In the respondent vs non-respondent comparison (2015 values), wealth = real estate, deposits, stocks, bonds, mortgage deeds in deposit, cars and pension accounts minus all debt except debt to private persons; tax-assessed housing values adjusted by the average ratio of market prices to tax-assessed values among traded houses of the same property class, location and price range. Robustness variants: market-adjusted housing; adding car stock (available from 2014); adding pension wealth; household-level wealth; liquid financial wealth only (stocks, bonds, deposits).
  Registers: Third-party reported wealth registers (SKAT/Statistics Denmark)
  Codes: Car and pension wealth only available from 2014
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A5 notes; Table A10
• Wealth percentile rank Wealth, debt and consumption
  Within cohort x year percentile rank in the sample; robustness versions use averages over 2013-2015, 2011-2015 and 2009-2015, and household-level wealth.
  Registers: Wealth registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure A10 notes; Table A11
• Credit-constrained indicator Wealth, debt and consumption
  Holding liquid assets worth less than one month's disposable income (measured in 2014 and over 2001-2015).
  Registers: Third-party reported wealth and income registers
  Codes: Liquid assets < 1/12 of annual disposable income
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure A8 notes
• Marginal interest rate (interest on marginal liquidity) Wealth, debt and consumption
  From tax-authority loan-level data: interest rate per loan r = interest paid in 2014 / (0.5 x (balance end-2013 + balance end-2014)); only non-mortgage loans, minimum denominator DKK 1,000, rates censored at the 5th and 95th percentiles. For respondents with loan accounts the marginal rate is the highest loan-specific rate; for respondents with only deposit accounts it is the smallest account-specific deposit rate. Distribution: p5 0.00, p25 0.97, p50 6.25, p75 12.73 percent.
  Registers: Danish Tax Agency (SKAT) account-level loan and deposit data, 2013-2014
  Codes: Non-mortgage loans; denominator >= DKK 1,000; censored p5/p95
  online appendix · Online Appendix C.4; Table A8
• Stock market return Wealth, debt and consumption
  (Dividend income + realised capital gains/losses during the year) / market value of stocks, averaged over 2008-2014; plus an indicator for owning stocks during the period.
  Registers: Tax-based income and wealth registers
  working paper · Section 3 (Table 2 col. 7 discussion)
• Parental wealth / initial wealth deciles Family links, fertility and household
  Parental wealth decile = parents' position in the parental wealth distribution measured within the respondent's cohort when the respondent was 18; initial wealth decile = own position in the within-cohort wealth distribution at age 18.
  Registers: Wealth register, Population register (parent links)
  working paper · Table 2 notes; Figure 3 notes
• Income controls Earnings and income
  Gross income = annual income excluding capital income (DKK).
  Registers: Income register
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A5 notes
• Experiment sample Sample definition and timing
  3,620 respondents (3,552 with controls) with full register variables; robustness subsamples: both parents alive (2,367); in labour force every year and never unemployed 2011-2015 (2,265); stable relationship status 2011-2015 (2,704); socioeconomic status never indicating poor health 2008-2015 (3,030). Inverse probability weights based on respondents vs invited non-respondents or vs population, using education-year dummies, income deciles, income growth, parental wealth, wealth at age 18, age, gender, single and dependent-children dummies.
  Registers: Population register (BEF); income, wealth and education registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Tables A5, A10, A11
• Patience index Other
  Patience groups by tertiles of the non-parametric patience measure with cut-offs Low [0.0,0.5], Medium [0.5,0.8], High [0.8,1.0]. Survey alternative (follow-up of 2,096 respondents) uses the 1973 Danish Longitudinal Survey of Youth job-profile question: average salary from start (low), low salary first two years then high (medium), very low salary first four years then very high (high).
  Registers: Online experiment linked on CPR
  Codes: Cut-offs 0.5 and 0.8
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figures A8-A10
• Years of education Education and test scores
  Robustness replaces years-of-schooling indicators with indicators for 59 general educational subject groups (e.g. comparative literature studies, economics, physics).
  Registers: Education register
  Codes: 59 educational groups
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A11 notes

• Household (unit of analysis) Family links, fertility and household
  A household is either a single person aged 20 or above or a married couple, in both cases with dependent children if any; fractiles are defined relative to the total number of households, including those not liable to wealth tax.
  Registers: Administrative wealth and income records
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.1.2
• Household net wealth (ranking variable) Wealth, debt and consumption
  100% of national-accounts household wealth at market value distributed to households: all non-financial and financial assets minus debts, including funded pensions, excluding durables and valuables. Pension wealth imputed (40% to wage earners pro rata wage income, 60% to retirees pro rata pension income); unlisted equity imputed by capitalizing unlisted dividends and non-corporate business assets by capitalizing business income. Danish distribution taken from Jakobsen et al. (2018), based on individual wealth records.
  Registers: Danish individual wealth records, National accounts
  working paper · Section 3.2; Online Appendix A and D
• HSBC undeclared account holder Taxes and tax rates
  Households who owned at least one account at HSBC Switzerland (including via shell companies with identified beneficial owners), declared themselves taxable in Scandinavia in 2006 and could be matched to a tax return (2006/2007 records); non-residents excluded; for Denmark all matched households are treated as evaders (about 95% of matched Danish accounts were undeclared).
  Registers: Leaked HSBC list (Danish tax authority version), Tax returns
  working paper · Section 3.1.1, footnotes 13-16; Online Appendix E
• Random-audit detected evasion Taxes and tax rates
  SKAT stratified random audits for tax years 2008, 2010 and 2012 (18,985 taxpayers; self-employed and complex returns oversampled), every line item examined; main results include all errors; deliberate evaders are those rated 0-2 on SKAT's 0-6 compliance scale. Evasion rate = taxes evaded / (taxes paid + taxes evaded) by wealth group, weighted by audit weights.
  Registers: SKAT random audit data
  Codes: SKAT compliance rating 0-2 = deliberate evasion
  online appendix · Section 4 (Random Audit Data); Online Appendix H.1-H.2

Replication package

• Allocated refugees Immigration and origin
  Refugees received in 1986-1998 who initially received a permanent residence permit, from Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Afghanistan, Ethiopia, or without citizenship; municipality of initial placement identified from the population register. Refugees from former Yugoslavia (special 1993 policy) and family-reunified spouses/children arriving more than 12 months after the refugee are excluded.
  Registers: BEF (population register)
  paper · Sections 2.4-2.5, footnotes 19-20
• Refugee share (treatment) Immigration and origin
  Cumulative number of refugees allocated to the municipality from 1986 until the year preceding each election, divided by the municipal population at the beginning of 1986; regressor is its change between consecutive election years (RS_it).
  Registers: BEF
  paper · Section 2.4 and Section 3.2, eq. (3.1)
• Vote share changes by party group Other
  Percentage-point change in municipal vote shares between election years t-1 and t (1989-98: three parliamentary and three municipal elections) for anti-immigration parties (Progress Party and Danish People's Party), centre-right, centre-left and small centre parties; seat shares also computed.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark election results
  paper · Sections 2.1 and 3.2, Table 1
• Urban municipality Geography and neighbourhood
  Municipalities above the 95th percentile of municipal population size are labelled urban.
  Registers: BEF
  paper · Introduction
• Share of rich (1985 municipal control) Earnings and income
  Share of adults whose disposable income as a household member is above 50% of the Danish median (one of several 1985 municipal characteristics with immigrant share, mean log gross earnings, crime rate, church-tax payers, unemployment rate, tertiary education share, immigrant welfare dependency).
  Registers: Income registers, Population, education, labour force and socio-economic registers
  paper · Section 2.4, footnote 22
• Non-employment Employment and labour force status
  Being unemployed or not in the labour force at ages 18-65.
  Registers: Labour force registers
  paper · Section 2, footnote 23

• Imputed household consumption Wealth, debt and consumption
  Annual household consumption (spending) imputed from the budget constraint as C = Y - T - dA, where Y = gross income from all sources (labour and capital) + housing support + child support - implicit tax on the consumption value of owned housing, T = total taxes paid, and dA = change in assets (cash, bank deposits, stocks and shares, property value, cars and other vehicles, minus liabilities). Values in 2000 DKr.
  Registers: Tax records (income and wealth tax data)
  working paper · Section 2.1, eq. (1)
• Co-worker network (weighted) Firm characteristics and productivity
  Co-workers are individuals working in the same plant (for public employees, the physical address of the workplace) from IDA. Baseline weights favour similar workers: with five education groups and three occupation groups (blue collar, white collar, manager), degree of separation d = |E_i - E_j| + |O_i - O_j| and weight (d+1)^-2; peers' consumption is the weighted average of co-workers' household log consumption.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 2.1; Section 5.1, eq. (11)
• Distance-3 peers Family links, fertility and household
  Starting from households where both spouses work, distance-1 peers are co-workers, distance-2 peers are the working spouses of co-workers, and distance-3 peers are the co-workers of the spouses of co-workers. Couples working in the same plant are excluded and feedback cases (where own household would serve as instrument for the peer) are discarded.
  Registers: IDA, Tax records
  working paper · Sections 4.1.2 and 5.1
• Firm instruments (distance-3 firm shocks) Firm characteristics and productivity
  Weighted averages over distance-3 peers of their firm's size, firm-specific change in employment, firm type dummies (publicly traded, limited liability, other) and a public-sector dummy, all expressed in first differences. A separate set uses distance-3 peers' demographics (age, age squared, years of schooling, share women, occupation shares, kids 0-6 and 7-13).
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 5.2 (text before Table 4); Table 1
• Estimation sample Sample definition and timing
  Households 1980-1996 whose head is aged 18-65 and where both spouses work as employees (not self-employed); households are dropped from the year one or both members stop working or become self-employed. Peers' consumption is computed using all workers, including singles and one-earner households.
  Registers: Tax records, IDA
  working paper · Section 2.1; Online Appendix Table A1 (selection steps)
• Visible / neutral / non-visible spending (DES) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Spending in the Danish Expenditure Survey is split using the Heffetz (2011) visibility index: visible = tobacco and alcohol, food away from home, clothing, furniture and home goods, electrics/appliances, vehicles, entertainment, books, education, personal care; neutral = food at home; everything else (insurance, rent, etc.) non-visible.
  Registers: DES (Danish Expenditure Survey)
  working paper · Section 2.2; Table A6

• Non-fatal cardiovascular shock Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  First-time heart attack or stroke (identified from the National Patient Registry, ICD diagnoses) between 1985 and 2011 where the individual survived the four-year analysis horizon (three years for stepchildren, children-in-law and coworker samples). Household matches based on period t = -1.
  Registers: LPR, Cause of Death Registry
  working paper · Sections 3.1-3.2
• Fatal shock Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Death of a family member between 1985 and 2011, from the Cause of Death Registry (exact death dates and causes).
  Registers: Cause of Death Registry
  working paper · Section 3.2
• Treatment and control groups (shock timing) Sample definition and timing
  Treated = individuals whose family member (or peer) had a shock in a calendar year; controls = individuals from the same cohorts whose family member (or peer) had the same shock five years later (Delta=5). Non-fatal sample = households in which a member had a first heart attack or stroke and survived the four-year horizon; death sample = families with a member who died 1985-2011. Alternative control group: exact match cells within calendar year on predicted cardiovascular risk of family members and lagged outcome, controls weighted by representation in cell (about 94% of controls for prime-age spouses never affected).
  Registers: National Patient Registry (LPR), Cause of Death Registry
  Codes: Delta = 5 years
  online appendix · Appendix Table 1 notes; Appendix B
• Statin consumption and cholesterol tests Health care use
  Cholesterol (blood test) indicators are available only for residents of Greater Copenhagen; drug dosage information (e.g. opioid doses) is excluded for the adult-children sample under the data use agreement, so opioid dose outcomes are estimated only for spouses.
  Registers: Prescription Drug Database (LMDB)
  online appendix · Appendix B; Appendix Table 2 and Table 7 notes
• Urgent care contacts Health care use
  Non-hospital contacts with on-call local doctors or nurses initiated outside regular working hours (8 am to 4 pm).
  Registers: Health Insurance Registry
  working paper · Section 4.2, footnote 31
• Addiction treatment drugs and opioid doses Health care use
  Indicator for purchasing nicotine/alcohol dependence medication; prescription opioid consumption measured in WHO defined daily doses (DDD), i.e. prescription day equivalents (spouses only, dosage data excluded for adult children).
  Registers: LMDB
  Codes: ATC N07BA, N07BB (dependence treatment)
  working paper · Section 4.2, footnotes 29, 32
• Family circles (spouses, children, siblings, stepchildren, in-laws) Family links, fertility and household
  Spouses = all married and cohabiting couples linked before the shock; adult children only for individuals born after 1960 (when parent links are available); children-in-law = spouses of the adult children of the shocked parent; 'nearby in-laws' = children-in-law living closer than the median distance to the parents-in-law; former spouses = linked by marriage or cohabitation in period -5 but not in period -1.
  Registers: Population registers (family links)
  Codes: children born after 1960
  online appendix · Appendix Table 1 notes; Appendix Tables 2, 10 notes
• Close coworkers Firm characteristics and productivity
  Workplaces defined by physical establishment units in matched employer-employee data. Shocked individuals who in pre-shock periods t=-4 to t=-1 worked at workplaces with employment at or below the sample's 25th percentile (about 20 employees); their coworkers in a similar occupation class with an age gap of 5 years or less; coworkers who are also family members excluded. Robustness perturbs the 5-year age gap and the workplace-size cutoff.
  Registers: IDA (matched employer-employee)
  Codes: workplace size <= 25th percentile (~20 employees); age gap <= 5 years
  online appendix · Appendix Table 1 notes; Appendix Tables 9-10 notes
• Predicted cardiovascular risk Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Probit for the one-year probability of a first heart attack or stroke, estimated on the whole population aged 20-90 in 1994-2014, with age fixed effects, gender, hypertension and diabetes status (from lagged indicators of condition-specific medication), year fixed effects and education; lagged fitted probability used as individual risk.
  Registers: Prescription Drug Database (LMDB), National Patient Registry (LPR), Education register
  Codes: ages 20-90, years 1994-2014
  online appendix · Appendix B, step I
• Shock severity Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Severity of the family shock measured by the number of hospitalization days (also split at the median).
  Registers: National Patient Registry (LPR)
  online appendix · Appendix Table 3 notes

• Weekly labour market spells Employment and labour force status
  Weekly spells 1985-2003 for the population aged 15-70 constructed from registers on public transfers, hourly wages, employer-reported job start/end dates and mandatory employer pension contributions; five states (employment, unemployment, retirement, self-employment, non-participation), with non-participation a residual state (neither employed, self-employed nor receiving a transfer classifying the person as unemployed or retired).
  Registers: Spell data (administrative registers), IDA
  working paper · Section 5 (Data sources)
• Unemployment spell (broad) and recall recoding Unemployment and benefits
  Non-participation recoded as unemployment; unemployment spells of 13 weeks or less followed by recall to the same employer are recoded as part of the original employment spell; unemployment spells of 2 weeks or less between employment spells with different employers are treated as a job-to-job transition.
  Registers: Spell data
  working paper · Section 5 (Analysis panel), footnotes 10-11
• Hourly wage Earnings and income
  IDA estimate of the average hourly wage for jobs active in the last week of November (no wage for spells not overlapping it); trimmed at 1st and 99th percentiles annually and trended to 2003 levels using implicit deflators.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 5
• Analysis panel Sample definition and timing
  1994-2003; histories truncated at age 55 and starting at graduation from highest completed education; workers ever observed in public-sector employment, self-employment, retirement or agriculture are discarded.
  Registers: Spell data, IDA
  working paper · Section 5 (Analysis panel)
• Firm inflow (poaching) rank Firm characteristics and productivity
  For each firm, the fraction of all hires over the 10-year window that come directly from other firms (job-to-job); measured only for firms with more than 15 hires and at least one hire from unemployment; used as a firm productivity rank.
  Registers: Spell data
  working paper · Section 6 (moments), footnote 17
• Education strata Education and test scores
  Robustness estimation splits workers into less than 15 and more than 15 years of education.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section on education-stratified estimation

• Two-digit occupation (cleaned) Occupation and job hierarchy
  Two-digit ISCO (DISCO) code taken from the four-digit occupation code in IDA, using only codes whose quality flag indicates they come from administrative surveys or pension funds (not imputation or lagged information). Missing codes are imputed if the worker has the same occupation at t-1 and t+1, or from t+2 after a firm switch; managerial codes 10-13 are combined into one, legislators and military are dropped, and small occupations are merged by skill group (e.g. 52 into 51, 92 into 61 for all skill groups).
  Registers: IDA, IDAS
  Codes: DISCO/ISCO two-digit; quality flag codes 1, 2, 4, 10 kept; ISCO 10-13 combined; high-skilled merges 42->41, 52->51, 72->71/74, 81->82/83, 91->93 per Appendix table; 21/22 merged for low/medium skill
  online appendix · Online Appendix D.1, Data Cleaning: Occupations (and footnote 11)
• Four-sector industry aggregation Sector and industry
  NACE 1.1 four-digit industry codes assigned to plants (FIRE; firm-level FIRM data used when plant data not available) and matched to workers, aggregated into four sectors: Manufacturing (incl. construction, agriculture, utilities), FIRE, Public Services (labelled Health & Education), and Other Services.
  Registers: FIRE, FIRM, IDA
  Codes: NACE 1 2-digit 0-45 = Manufacturing; 64-74 = FIRE; 75, 80, 85-90 = Public Services; all remaining = Other Services
  online appendix · Online Appendix D.1, Data Cleaning: Industry (full mapping in appendix Table 16)
• Skill group Education and test scores
  Three skill groups from completed education in IDA: low = high school or short-cycle education; medium = vocational or medium-cycle education; high = bachelor's degree or more. Education is never allowed to decrease (higher earlier level imputed) and missing values are filled from the previous year, else the next reported year.
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Online Appendix D.1, Data Cleaning: Skill
• Occupational tenure Occupation and job hierarchy
  Tenure measured at the occupation-sector pair level, constructed for early cohorts using data from 1990-1996, and censored above at 6 years to keep the measure comparable across cohorts; tenure resets upon switching occupations.
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Online Appendix D.1, Occupational Tenure; Appendix model section
• Annual income (November job) Earnings and income
  Total salary-based income reported by IDA in November of each year, covering the worker's primary and any secondary occupation; all of it is attributed to the reported (primary) occupation. Hours are not used because they are often imputed. Deflated by the 2000 Danish CPI (1000s DKK).
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Online Appendix D.1, Income; notes to Table A.7
• Employed Employment and labour force status
  A worker is counted as employed in year t if employed in November of t (IDA November position).
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Online Appendix D.1, Employment
• Sample frame Sample definition and timing
  Raw data are all individuals in IDAS aged 23-59 in 1996-2007; the final sample applies the occupation/education imputation and cleaning and drops workers non-employed for the whole sample period.
  Registers: IDAS
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.7 notes; D.1
• Foreign (import) price index by industry Trade and offshoring
  Variety-corrected CES import price index per industry built following Broda-Weinstein/Feenstra (Sato-Vartia weights on the common set of goods, adjusted for new and disappearing varieties) from customs data aggregated to the country-product level; a similar index is built from Comtrade, and the geometric mean of the customs, Comtrade and national-accounts indices is used as the path of foreign prices.
  Registers: UHDI, Comtrade (CEPII BACI), National accounts
  online appendix · Online Appendix, calibration of labour demand side (foreign prices, incl. footnote 14)

• IVF treatment success (instrument) Family links, fertility and household
  Equals 1 if the first IVF treatment with embryo implants (in a sequence of treatments) led to a childbirth, 0 otherwise; treatment outcome (birth, abortion, stillbirth, failure) and dates from the IVF register (mandatory reporting 1994-2005).
  Registers: IVF register (Danish National Board of Health)
  paper · Section III (model) and Section II.B
• Having children (endogenous treatment) Family links, fertility and household
  Indicator equal to 1 if the woman has children and 0 otherwise, measured over periods t = 0-1, 2-5 and 6-10 after the (potential) childbirth.
  Registers: Population registers
  paper · Section III and Table 2 notes
• IVF sample and potential childbirth year Sample definition and timing
  Treatment success is measured at the first IVF treatment with embryo implant; t=0 is the year of (potential) childbirth. All regressions control for age at first IVF treatment, year of first IVF treatment, and pre-treatment education and earnings; pre-treatment baseline means are taken over years 1-4 before the first IVF treatment. Four samples: (i) IVF-treated women without children (baseline); (ii) IVF-treated women with children; (iii) successfully treated women with at least two embryos implanted (twin strategy); (iv) representative sample of women with a first child born 1995-2005. Balanced-panel robustness sample also used.
  Registers: IVF register, Population/fertility registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix A, B (Table 2 notes), D, E
• Annual earnings Earnings and income
  Annual labour earnings from tax and employer-employee registers, including parental leave and sickness benefits, in 2008 DKK.
  Registers: Tax registers, Employer-employee registers
  paper · Section I and Table 1 notes
• Job changes and job characteristics Occupation and job hierarchy
  Dummies for any workplace change and any (four-digit) occupation change in the short, medium and long run; job characteristics are averages of earnings, hours and log hourly wages by workplace and four-digit occupation over the study period computed in a representative sample of Danish women, plus workplace percent female, public sector and home-work distance.
  Registers: Employer-employee registers
  Codes: Four-digit occupation code
  paper · Section IV.C and Table 4 notes
• Depression Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Measured as antidepressant medication use (data complete only from 1994 onward).
  Registers: Prescription registry
  paper · Section IV and Table 2 notes
• IVF medical controls Health care use
  Sensitivity specification adds medical factors from the IVF register: number of eggs retrieved, number of embryos implanted, diagnoses, causes of infertility, type of IVF treatment, and clinic indicators. A 'healthy women' subsample consists of women not diagnosed with any fertility problem.
  Registers: IVF register (Danish National Board of Health)
  online appendix · Online Appendix B, Table 2 notes
• Hourly wages (incl. zeros robustness) Earnings and income
  Main wage regressions condition on observing positive wages; robustness extends the sample to all women by setting missing wages to 0.
  Registers: Labour market registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix B, Table 3 notes
• Pre-treatment sickness benefits and positive earnings Unemployment and benefits
  Pre-treatment balance covariates measured the year before IVF treatment: years of schooling, annual earnings (100,000 DKK), sickness benefit receipt, marriage, indicator for positive earnings, and partner's schooling and earnings.
  Registers: Income and transfer registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix A, Table 1

Replication package

• Bank-account link (bank identity) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Year-end loan and deposit account balances reported by financial institutions to the tax authorities; the first four digits of each account number identify the bank branch, mapped to bank identity using hand-collected Nets lists of branch id-numbers for each year 2003-2011.
  Registers: Tax authority third-party account reports, Nets branch lists
  Codes: First four digits of account number = branch id
  working paper · Section 3.1, footnote 5
• Primary bank (2007) Wealth, debt and consumption
  If one bank relation in 2007, that bank; if multiple relations but a loan in only one, that bank; if loans in multiple banks, the bank with the largest loan balance; if no loans, the bank with the largest deposit balance. Always a bank, never a mortgage institution.
  Registers: Tax authority third-party account reports
  working paper · Section 3.3 and footnote 6
• Exposed bank Firm characteristics and productivity
  Individuals ordered by the 2007 loan-to-deposit ratio of their primary bank and split at the median individual: above-median primary bank = exposed (approximately equal numbers in each group).
  Registers: Danish Central Bank bank balance sheets
  working paper · Section 3.3
• Imputed spending Wealth, debt and consumption
  Spending = disposable income minus change in net wealth. Disposable income = total realized income - taxes - interest payments + payments from private pension accounts (net of taxes) + imputed capital gains on stocks (start-of-period stock value times growth in stock price index). Net wealth = market value of securities + savings and checking accounts - mortgage loans - bank debt - other loans; real estate excluded (so spending includes real estate purchases). Main regressions exclude stock owners.
  Registers: Income registers, Wealth registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A1; WP Section 3.2
• Pension withdrawals (borrowing-constraint indicator) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Withdrawals (liquidations) from tax-favoured pension savings accounts, which carry a 60% penalty before pension age, used as an indicator of borrowing constraints.
  Registers: Income and wealth registers
  working paper · Section 5 (Table 4, col. 3)
• Car ownership Wealth, debt and consumption
  Number of cars owned, indicators for owning at least one and at least two cars, and average car weight, from the auto register (weight and production year of each registered automobile).
  Registers: Motor vehicle register
  working paper · Sections 3.1 and 6
• Baseline sample Sample definition and timing
  Residents 2003-2011 aged 20-50 in 2007, excluding self-employed and individuals whose 2007 primary bank failed in 2008-2011 (analysed separately), 25% random sample (about 440,000 individuals); DKK variables winsorized at 1st and 99th percentiles.
  Registers: Tax records, Population registers
  working paper · Sections 3.1 and 3.3
• Unemployment controls/outcome Unemployment and benefits
  Control: dummy for unemployment spells during 2006-2007; outcome: fraction of the year spent in unemployment.
  Registers: Labour market registers
  working paper · Section 4 controls; Table A-notes

Replication package

• Conviction Crime
  Court ruling that the suspect is guilty of the charge, signalled by a sentence (fine, conditional withdrawal of charge, or suspended or unsuspended prison sentence); 'not guilty' if a not-guilty verdict was recorded or the indictment dropped. Convictions are linked to the start date of committing the offence; all charges and convictions are observed even after deletion from the criminal record.
  Registers: Central Police Register
  working paper · Section II.B and footnote 17
• Offence categories Crime
  Mapping of Central Police Register categories: (1) violence = all sexual assault convictions (rape, offence against decency, sexual offence against children under 12, other) and all violence convictions (violence against public authority, simple violence, threats, manslaughter, other); (2) property = document fraud, burglary in bank or shop, shoplifting etc., vandalism, fraud, other property offences; (3) drug crimes = sale of narcotics (penal code) and all Drugs Act offences; (4) other = perjury, privacy violation and defamation, negligent manslaughter (road accident), other penal code offences, Arms Act, tax acts and other special acts (gambling and trade laws, tax and duty law). Traffic Act offences (incl. drunk driving, speeding) excluded.
  Registers: Central Police Register
  Codes: Penal code, Traffic Act (excluded), Drugs Act, Arms Act, tax and other special acts
  online appendix · Table A4
• Individual crime outcomes ages 15-21 Crime
  Number of convictions for offences (except traffic offences) committed in age range a1-a2 (15-21, 15-17, 18-21); type-specific counts by category j.
  Registers: Central Police Register
  online appendix · Table A5.A
• Youth crime conviction rate of municipality Crime
  Share of individuals aged 15-25 living in the municipality convicted of an offence (except traffic) committed in that calendar year; overall crime conviction rate = same share among all residents; type-specific rates for j = violent, property, drugs, other. Computed for 1986-1998.
  Registers: Central Police Register, Population register
  Codes: ages 15-25
  online appendix · Table A5.B; Table A3 notes
• Refugee (dispersal policy sample) Immigration and origin
  Individual who immigrated 1986-1998 from Lebanon, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, Afghanistan or Ethiopia and, at the year of receiving a residence permit, was not married to someone from a non-refugee sending country or to a refugee-country immigrant who arrived at least one year earlier; former Yugoslavia excluded.
  Registers: Administrative population registers
  working paper · Section II.C and footnote 18
• Refugee children sample Sample definition and timing
  Full sample: children of immigrants from Iraq, Iran, Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Lebanon, Ethiopia, Afghanistan or Somalia who immigrated before age 15 in 1986-1998, at most one year after their refugee parent(s), and turn 21 in 1986-2006 (5,615 individuals). Balanced sample (4,425) excludes those who emigrated before 21 (975) and those living in Denmark at 21 but not observed annually in registers at ages 15-21 (215).
  Registers: Population register
  online appendix · Table A6 notes
• Municipal poverty rate Geography and neighbourhood
  Relative poverty rate = share of adults in the municipality with equivalence-scaled disposable household income below 50% of the national median equivalence-scaled disposable household income.
  Registers: Tax and income registers
  Codes: < 50% of national median
  online appendix · Table A5.B
• Policing measures Crime
  Police officers per 1,000 inhabitants = detectives plus uniformed officers employed in the police district (annual police reports 1986-1999); crime detection rate = annual number of charges divided by annual number of reported crimes in the municipality or police district.
  Registers: Annual police reports, Statistiske Efterretninger
  online appendix · Table A5.B
• Reported crimes per capita Crime
  Reported crimes in a calendar year divided by inhabitants of the municipality (or police district); reported violent crimes per 10,000 inhabitants defined analogously. Source: 'Statistiske Efterretninger om Social Sikring og Retsvaesen' (1986-1998); inhabitants from Statistikbanken BEF1A.
  Registers: Statistiske Efterretninger, Statistikbanken BEF1A
  Codes: BEF1A
  online appendix · Table A5.B
• Immigrant share Geography and neighbourhood
  Number of immigrants and descendants living in the municipality divided by inhabitants.
  Registers: Population register
  online appendix · Table A5.B
• Municipal school resources Education and test scores
  Pupils/teacher ratio = average number of pupils in a normal class in the municipality in a school year; weekly teacher wage hours per pupil. Sources: 'Folkeskolen i de enkelte kommuner' and 'Folkeskolen i tal' (Ministry of Education, 1989/90-1998/99).
  Registers: Ministry of Education publications
  online appendix · Table A5.B
• Refugee family characteristics Immigration and origin
  Assignment year = first year of receipt of residence permit; source country dummies; nuclear family = living in a two-parent household; single parent = single-parent household; years of education before immigration constructed from the education code of the highest degree attained before immigration; number of persons in the household minus the number of parents living in it.
  Registers: Population register, Education register (pre-immigration survey codes)
  online appendix · Table A5.A

• Hourly wage Earnings and income
  Wage rate uses annual hours from IDA (following Christensen et al. 2005); annual hours do not capture overtime. In a 2006 subsample with overtime data, a wage rate including overtime correlates 0.86 with the main wage rate.
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 1
• High- vs low-skilled worker Education and test scores
  Robustness split of low-skilled workers into medium-skilled (vocational education, defined as the final stage of secondary education preparing for labour market entry) and very-low-skilled (high school equivalent or less); results very similar. Workers whose skill level changes during the sample period are dropped.
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 1
• Broad offshoring Trade and offshoring
  Total value of imports by a given manufacturing firm in a given year, from the Foreign Trade Statistics Register (Extrastat and Intrastat), recorded at CN8 and aggregated to HS6.
  Registers: Foreign Trade Statistics Register (UHDI)
  working paper · Section II.3
• Narrow offshoring Trade and offshoring
  Machinery imports (HS 84 and HS 85, 16.9% of imports) are included in broad offshoring for all firms; narrow offshoring excludes them except for firms that themselves produce machinery for sale. Within HS 84 the top 20 HS6 import products (59% of HS 84 imports) are all parts rather than machines.
  Registers: Foreign Trade Statistics Register
  Codes: HS 84; HS 85
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 3.2
• World export supply and world import demand instruments Trade and offshoring
  WES: country c's total supply of HS6 product k to the world market minus its supply to Denmark in year t; WID: country c's total purchases of product k from the world market less purchases from Denmark; both from COMTRADE and weighted by pre-sample firm input/output shares; plus exchange rates and transport costs fitted from US imports data.
  Registers: UN COMTRADE, Foreign Trade Statistics Register
  working paper · Section III and Data Appendix section 2
• Estimation sample (firms) Sample definition and timing
  Start from 2.8 million manufacturing worker-firm-year observations after merging workers, firms and trade. Drop worker-firm-years whose job spell lasts a single year (~200,000 obs); drop workers whose skill level changes in the sample (~35,000 obs); drop firms with fewer than 50 employees and less than DKK 0.6 million in imports (about two manufacturing workers' average annual wages) (~600,000 obs).
  Registers: IDA, FirmStat, Foreign Trade Statistics Register
  Codes: firm size < 50 employees and imports < DKK 0.6m dropped
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 1
• Firm controls Firm characteristics and productivity
  Firm identifier from 'Old Firm Statistics' (1995-1999) and 'General Firm Statistics' (1999-2006), combined in FirmStat to track firms across the 1999 break. Employees = number of full-time equivalent workers in the year (FirmStat). Capital stock = value of land, buildings, machines, equipment and inventory (Accounting Statistics register). Gross output (net of taxes) from the VAT register. Firm skill intensity = educational attainment of individual workers in IDA aggregated to the firm via FIDA.
  Registers: FirmStat, Old Firm Statistics, General Firm Statistics, Accounting Statistics, VAT register, IDA, FIDA
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 1
• Routine / non-routine task intensity Occupation and job hierarchy
  IDA occupation uses the Danish version of ISCO-88, mapped to O*NET via the National Crosswalk Center crosswalk. Non-routine = principal component of O*NET 1.A.1.c.1 (mathematical reasoning), 1.A.2.b.3 (response orientation), 1.A.3.c.3 (gross body coordination), 2.A.1.e (mathematics), 4.A.2.b.2 (thinking creatively), 4.A.2.b.6 (organizing, planning, prioritizing). Routine = 1.A.2.a.2 (manual dexterity), 1.A.2.a.3 (finger dexterity), 1.A.2.b.2 (multilimb coordination), 4.A.2.a.2 (processing information), 4.A.2.a.3 (evaluating compliance with standards).
  Registers: IDA, O*NET
  Codes: ISCO-88 (Danish version); O*NET 1.A.1.c.1, 1.A.2.b.3, 1.A.3.c.3, 2.A.1.e, 4.A.2.b.2, 4.A.2.b.6 (non-routine); O*NET 1.A.2.a.2, 1.A.2.a.3, 1.A.2.b.2, 4.A.2.a.2, 4.A.2.a.3 (routine)
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 1
• Mass-layoff displacement and offshorer Employment and labour force status
  Displaced workers separate from firms where at least 30% of the initial-year workers are not employed by the firm the following year (gross flows). Offshorers are displaced from firms whose predicted offshoring (first stage) rose at least 10% between predisplacement and displacement year. Sample: manufacturing workers with at least six years tenure in some year 1997-2000, not dying, emigrating or turning 61 in 1995-2006, at firms importing at least DKK 600,000 with 50+ employees.
  Registers: IDA, FIDA, FirmStat
  working paper · Section VI, footnotes 32-34, Data Appendix section 3
• Labour market experience Employment and labour force status
  Actual time in employment since 1964. Union membership and marital status also taken from IDA.
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 1
• Foreign trade reporting thresholds Trade and offshoring
  Foreign Trade Statistics Register = Extrastat (non-EU trade, near-complete customs coverage) + Intrastat (intra-EU trade, reported only above an annual value threshold). In 2002 the Intrastat thresholds were DKK 2.5 million for exports and DKK 1.5 million for imports.
  Registers: Foreign Trade Statistics Register (Extrastat, Intrastat)
  Codes: Intrastat threshold 2002: exports DKK 2.5m, imports DKK 1.5m
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 1
• Occupational knowledge and hazard indices Occupation and job hierarchy
  Principal-component indices from O*NET: social sciences = 2.C.1 (all subitems), 2.C.6, 2.C.7, 2.C.8, 2.C.9, 2.C.4.e, 2.C.4.f; natural sciences = 2.C.2, 2.C.3, 2.C.5, 2.C.4.b, 2.C.4.c, 2.C.4.d, 2.C.4.g, 2.C.10, 2.A.1.f; communication and language = 4.A.4.a, 2.B.1, 1.A.1.a, 4.C.1.a.4, 4.C.1.b.1, 2.A.1.a-2.A.1.d; on-the-job hazards = 4.C.2.c, 4.C.2.b.1, 4.C.2.e.1.
  Registers: IDA, O*NET
  Codes: ISCO-88; O*NET item IDs as listed
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 1
• Transport-cost instrument Trade and offshoring
  Ad-valorem shipping cost functions estimated on US data (US Imports of Merchandise for sea and air, 1995-2006; US Transborder Surface Freight data for truck and rail) as functions of weight/value, fuel prices (crude oil; jet fuel for air) and distance, then fitted for Danish firms' exporter-HS6 inputs using pre-sample trade shares and transport-mode shares (pre-sample Danish imports: 42% sea, 20% air, 37% truck, 1% rail).
  Registers: Foreign Trade Statistics Register
  Codes: HS6
  online appendix · Data Appendix, section 2

• Scheme earnings eligibility threshold Taxes and tax rates
  Foreigners' scheme requires annual wage earnings with the requesting employer above a threshold that grows roughly with average earnings and lies between the 99.2th and 99.4th percentile of the Danish wage earnings distribution (DKK 765,600 in 2009); it must be met on an annualized basis (e.g. a 6-month contract needs half the annual threshold). For pre-1991 years the threshold is imputed by holding the threshold-to-average-earnings ratio at its 1991 value, with average earnings computed over all workers with positive earnings.
  Registers: Administrative tax and payroll records
  working paper · Section 2.1 and footnote 14
• Scheme eligibility (prior tax liability) Taxes and tax rates
  To be eligible the taxpayer must have been recruited abroad and not have been tax liable in Denmark in the 3 years before going on the scheme (applied to each scheme spell separately; prior scheme time not counted); citizenship plays no formal role, so Danish citizens tax-resident abroad for 3+ years qualify. Scheme lasts at most 36 months.
  Registers: Foreigners' tax scheme beneficiary records
  working paper · Section 2.1 and footnote 12
• Annualized earnings Earnings and income
  Earnings of part-year residents are annualized based on duration of stay in the year, with duration of stay measured from the migration database (daily dates of entry and exit from CPR records).
  Registers: Administrative tax records, CPR migration records
  working paper · Section 4.1, footnote 23
• Treatment and control groups of foreigners (migration DiD) Immigration and origin
  Treatment: foreigners with (annualized) earnings above the eligibility threshold; controls: foreigners with earnings between 80% and 90% (control 1) and between 90% and 99.5% (control 2) of the threshold, series normalized to 1990. In the elasticity regressions controls are foreigners between 80% and 99% of the threshold; an alternative uses the 99.5-100th percentile vs the 95-97th and 97-99th percentiles of the full earnings distribution.
  Registers: Administrative tax records, CPR citizenship records
  working paper · Section 4.1, Figures 4-5, Table 2
• Citizenship groups and expatriates Immigration and origin
  Nordic foreigners: citizens of Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden; English-speaking: Australia, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, UK, US. Expatriates are Danish citizens returning after a spell of at least three years abroad.
  Registers: CPR citizenship records
  working paper · Section 4.1, Table 2 Panels A5-A7
• Wage-effect repeated cross-section sample Sample definition and timing
  For year t, foreigners who arrived in Denmark in year t-1 and stayed the full calendar year t; earnings between 70-95% (below) and 105-400% (above) of the threshold, excluding 95-105% (bunchers) and above 400%; years 1991-1994 excluded because scheme earnings are not computerized.
  Registers: Administrative tax records, CPR migration records, Scheme beneficiary records
  working paper · Section 4.2, Figure 8, Table 3, footnote 30
• Top natives and top foreign employees (spillovers) Earnings and income
  Top natives: native workers with earnings above 75% of the scheme eligibility threshold (about the top 3% of native earnings). Top foreign employees: foreign employees with less than 3 years of presence in Denmark and annualized earnings above the threshold; industry scheme use = growth in top foreign employees between 1980-1990 and 1991-2000 divided by top native employees in 1980-1990.
  Registers: Administrative tax and payroll records, Employer links with 2-digit industry
  working paper · Section 4.3 (industry-level spillovers), footnote 35

• Weekly labour market states (spell data) Employment and labour force status
  Job spells defined at firm (not establishment) level; establishment-level IDA information aggregated to the firm, with firm industry and ownership taken from its largest establishment by remaining workers. Nonparticipation is a residual state: 47% of workers have at least one nonparticipation spell and 5.5% of last-week-of-November spells are nonparticipation.
  Registers: IDA, Spell data
  online appendix · Working paper Appendix B, footnote 14
• Hourly wage Earnings and income
  IDA average hourly wage for jobs active in the last week of November, deflated to 2003 prices with Statistics Denmark's CPI.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 3 and Appendix B
• Actual labour market experience Employment and labour force status
  Actual experience at end of calendar year constructed from mandatory ATP pension payments back to 1 January 1964; pre-1980 experience measured in years and post-1980 in 1/1000 of a year's full-time work. Workers dropped if pre-1980 experience changes over 1985-2003, if experience falls or rises by more than two years in a year, or exceeds age minus 15.
  Registers: IDA, ATP
  working paper · Section 3, footnote 11, Appendix B
• Firm productivity (hourly value added) Firm characteristics and productivity
  Statistics Denmark's accounting-data sampling scheme by firm size: theoretical sampling probability 0.10 (0-9 employees), 0.20 (10-19), 0.50 (20-49), 1.00 (>49); firms with revenue above DKK 100 million (DKK 200 million in wholesale) are also included; in practice 10% of firms with 5-9 employees and no firms with 0-4 employees are sampled (0-4 lumped with 5-9). Empirical sampling probabilities (pooled 1999-2003 last-week-of-November cross sections) of about 0.07-0.09, 0.29-0.30, 0.60-0.62 and 0.91-0.95 are used as weights.
  Registers: Accounts Statistics (regnskabsstatistik), IDA
  Codes: size bins 0-9, 10-19, 20-49, >49; revenue > DKK 100m (wholesale > DKK 200m)
  online appendix · Working paper Appendix B, Table 7
• Private-sector employment Sector and industry
  Ownership code of the employing establishment in IDA identifies private-sector establishments; histories are truncated at entry into a public sector job, self-employment, retirement or an industry without accounting data. Firm industry and ownership taken from its largest establishment.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 3, footnote 10, Appendix B
• Schooling strata Education and test scores
  Years of education computed from type of highest completed education, grouped as 7-11 years (primary), 12-14 years (high school or vocational) and 15-20 years (bachelor or higher); workers enter two years after graduation and are dropped if ever observed in education afterwards or if years of education exceed age minus seven.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Section 3 and Appendix B
• Analysis sample Sample definition and timing
  Men born on or after 1 January 1948 (so experience from 1964 is complete), 1985-2003, dropping firms with missing ID, ownership or industry and workers with gaps in observed histories.
  Registers: Spell data, IDA
  working paper · Appendix B

• Primary analysis sample Sample definition and timing
  Danish population 1995-2009 from merged income tax register, population register and IDA, excluding observations below age 18 or above 60 and observations with self-employment income (about 41 million observations on 4 million individuals).
  Registers: IND (income tax register), BEF, IDA
  working paper · Section III (Sample and Variable Definitions)
• Taxable saving (gross and net) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Gross taxable saving = change in third-party reported end-of-year assets in taxable accounts; net saving = gross saving minus change in liabilities, where liabilities cover secured and unsecured debt except home mortgages. Saving measures and rates below the 1st or above the 99th percentile in the estimation sample are set to missing.
  Registers: Third-party reported wealth data (tax authority)
  working paper · Section III
• Pension contributions by account Retirement and pensions
  Annual employer and individual contributions to capital pension (lump-sum) and annuity pension accounts as reported by employers and pension funds; contributions above the 99th percentile are top-coded at the 99th percentile in each account and year.
  Registers: IND (income tax register)
  working paper · Section III
• Income concepts Earnings and income
  Labor income = labor earnings before taxes excluding contributions to employer-administered pensions; total compensation = labor earnings plus employer and employee contributions to employer-administered accounts; taxable income = labor income plus other income (e.g., UI) affecting tax liability. Measured at the individual level, with joint-account balances split equally.
  Registers: IND (income tax register)
  working paper · Section III
• Firm switch Employment and labour force status
  Individual switches firms in year t if he has earnings from two distinct firms in t and t-1 (primary job for multiple jobholders); switches where earnings fell by more than half or more than doubled are excluded; set missing in 2003, 2005 and 2007 when firm identifiers changed. Event studies require at least 4 years of data before and after.
  Registers: IDA, IND
  working paper · Section IV.A, footnotes 9-10
• Mandatory Savings Plan (MSP) contribution Retirement and pensions
  From 1998 individuals with labor income at or above DKr 34,500 were required to contribute 1% of earnings (DKr 345 at the cutoff); RD on changes in pension contributions/saving from 1997 to 1998 for individuals within DKr 25,000 of the cutoff.
  Registers: IND (income tax register)
  Codes: cutoff Y >= DKr 34,500; bandwidth DKr 25,000
  working paper · Section IV.B, equation (6)
• 1999 capital pension subsidy reduction Taxes and tax rates
  From 1999 the deduction for capital pension contributions fell from 59 to 45 cents per DKr for individuals in the top income tax bracket (cutoff DKr 251,200 in 1998); treatment group: taxable income DKr 25,000-75,000 above the top-tax cutoff; control: DKr 25,000-75,000 below.
  Registers: IND (income tax register)
  working paper · Section V, V.A (Estimator 1)

• Audit treatment (stage 1) Taxes and tax rates
  Stratified random sample of 25,020 employees and 17,764 self-employed (strata: employee/self-employed, light/heavy return complexity, 30 regional tax centres) randomly split into a 100% group subjected to unannounced comprehensive audits of returns filed in 2007 (2006 income) and a 0% group never audited; effects are intent-to-treat (actual audit rates 98.7% employees, 92% self-employed).
  Registers: SKAT Business Object Database
  working paper · Section 4.2
• Threat-of-audit letters (stage 2) Taxes and tax rates
  Employees in both audit groups randomly assigned (thirds) to receive a letter one month before the 1 May 2008 filing deadline stating that the return would certainly be audited (100% letter), that half of the group would be audited (50% letter), or no letter. Outcome is the probability of self-reported adjustments (upward/downward) relative to the latest return at the time the letter was received.
  Registers: SKAT Business Object Database
  working paper · Section 4.2; Section 7 and footnote 38; Table 8
• Detected tax evasion (audit adjustments) Taxes and tax rates
  Net audit adjustment = after-audit return (A) minus filed return (F), split into under-reporting (upward adjustments raising tax liability) and over-reporting (downward adjustments), for net income, total tax and income components.
  Registers: SKAT Business Object Database
  Codes: Returns: information report (I), pre-populated (P), filed (F), after-audit (A)
  working paper · Section 4.3; Section 5.1; Table 2 notes
• Third-party vs self-reported income and evasion Taxes and tax rates
  Third-party income comes from information reports; self-reported income = total reported income minus third-party income. For always-positive line items, third-party under-reporting = A-F if F<A<I, = I-F if F<I<=A, zero otherwise; self-reported under-reporting is total upward adjustment net of third-party under-reporting. Third-party under-reporting is defined only for positive items.
  Registers: SKAT Business Object Database
  Codes: F<A<I: A-F; F<I<=A: I-F; else 0
  working paper · Section 5.2; Table 2 notes
• Net income and components Earnings and income
  Net income = personal income + capital income + stock income + self-employment income + foreign income - deductions. Personal income: earnings, pensions, alimony minus some retirement contributions; capital income: interest income, bond returns, net rents minus interest payments; stock income: dividends and realised capital gains on stocks; self-employment income: net profits of unincorporated businesses.
  Registers: SKAT Business Object Database
  working paper · Table 2 notes; Table 1
• Audit flags Taxes and tax rates
  Presence and number of computer-generated audit flags, a deterministic function of the return characteristics that SKAT normally uses to select returns for examiner review.
  Registers: SKAT audit flag system
  working paper · Section 4.1; Section 4.3

• Wage earner sample Employment and labour force status
  Individuals aged 15-70 in the tax register 1994-2001 classified as wage earners by IDA employment status, excluding self-employed, pensioners, wage earners with self-employment income and wage earners with unemployment; much of the analysis uses wage earners within DKr 50,000 of the top tax cutoff. Self-employed analysed separately.
  Registers: IND (tax register), IDA
  Codes: BESKST=4 (robustness: BESKST in 4, 5, 7, 8)
  working paper · Section 4; Appendix B
• Tax simulator and marginal tax rates Taxes and tax rates
  Authors' tax simulator computing tax liabilities and marginal tax rates from own and spouse's tax variables and previous-year municipality of residence; it matches actual municipal, regional, bottom, middle and top taxes within DKr 5 for 95% of observations.
  Registers: IND (tax register)
  Codes: pnr, henv (spouse), glskkmnr (municipality), pfrdst, berfrdst (personal exemption), perindkp, berpi (personal income), kapindkp, berkap (capital income), lignfrdp (special deductions), kappens, fosfufrd (individual pension contributions), arbpen14, arbpen15 (employer capital pension contributions), underhol (alimony)
  working paper · Appendix B
• Wage earnings and net deductions Earnings and income
  Wage earnings from the tax register; net deductions = deductions minus non-wage income (accounting for spousal deductions), equivalently wage earnings minus taxable income; in the top-tax base, net deductions = wage earnings needed to start paying top tax minus the statutory top tax cutoff. Small-deduction group: net deductions below DKr 7,500 in magnitude.
  Registers: IND (tax register)
  Codes: wage earnings qlontmp2; self-employment profits qovskvir, virkordind
  working paper · Section 4; Appendix B
• Bunching (excess mass) at kinks Taxes and tax rates
  Excess mass b = number of individuals in a window around the kink in excess of a counterfactual density, relative to the average counterfactual density in the window; the counterfactual is a seventh-degree polynomial fitted to binned counts of the earnings distribution excluding a DKr 15,000 window centred on the kink (q=7, R=7).
  Registers: IND (tax register)
  Codes: q=7 (polynomial degree), R=7 (bins on each side), excluded window DKr 15,000
  working paper · Section 4, equations (15)-(16)
• Firm bunching and occupation earnings modes Occupation and job hierarchy
  Occupation-year modes = DKr 5,000 wage-earnings bin with most workers in each 4-digit ISCO occupation-year (occupation-years with under 7,000 workers excluded). Firm bunching b_F = excess mass at the statutory top-tax cutoff for workers with more than DKr 20,000 in deductions; individual bunching b_I = excess mass at the pension kink for the same group; compared across 2-digit ISCO occupations.
  Registers: IDA, IND
  Codes: occupation discok (ISCO 4-digit; 2-digit for Figure 18); deductions > DKr 20,000
  working paper · Section 6 (Predictions 2 and 3); Appendix B; Figures 14, 18
• Pension-driven kink Retirement and pensions
  Cap on tax-deductible pension contributions (about DKr 33,000 on average) means workers contributing up to the cap enter the top bracket at wage earnings about DKr 33,000 above the statutory cutoff; bunching there is used to measure individual (job-search) bunching.
  Registers: IND (tax register)
  working paper · Introduction; Section 6

• Imputed total household expenditure Wealth, debt and consumption
  Total expenditure imputed from tax registers as disposable income (taxable income plus some non-taxable components and transfers, minus final taxes) minus the change in net wealth from the end of one tax year to the end of the next, following Browning and Leth-Petersen (2003); capital gains are not netted out except for housing. Households with negative imputed expenditure are dropped.
  Registers: Income tax register, Wealth tax register
  Codes: c_t = y_t - dW_t (equation 14), with allowance for housing capital gains
  working paper · Section 4.1, equation (14); Section 4.2
• Wealth components Wealth, debt and consumption
  Third-party reported assets in six pre-reform categories (housing assets at tax-assessed cash value, shares, deposited mortgage deeds, cash holdings, bonds, other assets incl. self-reported non-deposited bonds, ship shares and high-value objects) and total liabilities; mortgage debt is separately available only up to 1993, so only total liabilities are consistent across years. Employer pension funds are not observed.
  Registers: Wealth tax register
  working paper · Section 4.2; Appendix figure A2
• Credit-constrained (low liquid assets) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Alternative splits used in robustness: low liquid assets = liquid assets of at most two months of disposable income in 1991; at most one month of disposable income in both 1990 and 1991; at most one month of disposable income in 1991 and subsequently experiencing an unemployment shock.
  Registers: Wealth tax register, Income tax register
  online appendix · Section 5 (3.1-3.3), alternative sample splits
• Credit reform exposure Wealth, debt and consumption
  The 1992 mortgage reform allowed mortgage loans to finance non-housing purposes, up to 60% of the house value, and extended the maximum maturity from 20 to 30 years; homeowners are treated and renters serve as a consistency check.
  Registers: Administrative dwelling registers
  working paper · Section 2; Section 4.3
• Household panel sample Sample definition and timing
  Robustness subsamples: renters (separate analysis) and house owners holding no financial assets (no stocks or bonds).
  Registers: Wealth tax register
  online appendix · Sections 2-3
• Propensity-score matching covariates Sample definition and timing
  Probit for low-liquid-asset status in 1991 uses: housing equity/house value and its square, ln(house value) and square (owners), ln(gross income) and square, age and square, single, UI membership, size of house and square, labour supply (male, female), self-employed (male, female), education short/medium/long, number of children dummies (1-4). Monetary values in DKK, 1990 prices. Matching with replacement; SEs per Abadie and Imbens (2006).
  Registers: Income tax register, Wealth tax register, Population registers
  online appendix · Tables A1, A4
• Household education level Education and test scores
  Highest level of education in the household, grouped into no/low vs medium/high for heterogeneity analysis.
  Registers: Education register
  online appendix · Section 4, Figure A6

• Firm panel Sample definition and timing
  Unbalanced annual panel 1992-1997 of privately owned firms from the Danish Business Statistics Register: all firms existing in 1992 with more than 20 workers, followed over time; entrants after 1992 excluded (about 4,872 firms).
  Registers: Danish Business Statistics Register
  working paper · Section 2 (Danish Firm Data); Section 5 (Danish Firm Data)
• Quality-adjusted employment Firm characteristics and productivity
  N* of firm j equals its total wage bill W_j divided by the economy-wide average wage per worker (sum of W over sum of N); for firms observed in several years the implied labour quality is averaged over time.
  Registers: Danish Business Statistics Register
  Codes: N*_j = W_j / w, w = sum_j W_j / sum_j N_j
  working paper · Section 2, equation (1) and footnote 2
• Labour productivity Firm characteristics and productivity
  Value added per worker (Y/N) and value added per quality-adjusted worker (Y/N*), with Y in DKK.
  Registers: Danish Business Statistics Register
  working paper · Section 2, Figure 1
• Firm growth including exit Firm characteristics and productivity
  Firm growth rate in value added (dY/Y) where an exiting firm contributes an observation of -1.
  Registers: Danish Business Statistics Register
  working paper · Section 5, Table 2
• Productivity growth decomposition Firm characteristics and productivity
  Growth in aggregate value added per worker decomposed following Foster, Haltiwanger and Krizan (2001) into within, between, cross, entry and exit terms, with firm employment shares as weights; no entry term because entrants are excluded.
  Registers: Danish Business Statistics Register
  Codes: P_t = sum_e s_et p_et, p_et = Y_et/N_et, s_et = N_et/N_t
  working paper · Section 5, equation (19), Table 3

• Operating return on assets (OROA) Firm characteristics and productivity
  Ratio of earnings before interest and taxes (EBIT) to the book value of assets, from annual reports of limited liability firms (KOB). Performance change is the three-year average after succession minus the three-year average before, omitting the succession year.
  Registers: KOB
  working paper · Section II.B; footnote 13; Table IV notes
• Industry-adjusted OROA Firm characteristics and productivity
  OROA minus the equally weighted average OROA of all active firms (including non-event firms) in the same industry and year; four-digit NACE industries are used if they contain at least 20 non-event firms in a year, otherwise three- or two-digit groupings.
  Registers: KOB
  Codes: NACE 4-digit, falling back to 3- or 2-digit; minimum 20 non-event firms
  working paper · Section II.B
• Industry-and-performance-adjusted OROA Firm characteristics and productivity
  OROA adjusted using as control firms in the same industry and the same industry-adjusted performance decile in the year before succession (Barber and Lyon, 1996).
  Registers: KOB
  working paper · Section IV.A
• Family CEO succession Family links, fertility and household
  Indicator equal to one if the incoming CEO is related by blood or marriage to the departing CEO according to family trees built from the Civil Registration System (parents, siblings, children, marital history), zero otherwise; family successions split into children and other relatives.
  Registers: CPR, Erhvervs- og Selskabsstyrelsen (ES) management records
  working paper · Section II.A, II.C; equation (2)
• Gender of firstborn child (instrument) Family links, fertility and household
  Indicator equal to one if the departing CEO's first child is male and zero if female; used as an instrument for family succession in a linear first stage.
  Registers: CPR
  working paper · Section III, equation (2)
• CEO succession sample Sample definition and timing
  CEO successions 1994-2002 in Danish limited liability firms, kept when the departing (incoming) CEO had been (stayed) in the position at least two years, CEO names were matched to CPR numbers via the ES dataset, matching KOB financial data existed around the transition and employment (where available) was non-zero; only the first transition per firm is kept (5,334 successions).
  Registers: KOB, ES, CPR
  working paper · Section II.A
• Industry heterogeneity measures Sector and industry
  Sample split at the median of industry production growth, output volatility (value of production), labour compensation per employee and import penetration (Statistics Denmark), workers' schooling (authors' calculation from individual schooling and industry of employment), and R&D (industries reporting R&D expenses in OECD STAN).
  Registers: Statistics Denmark industry statistics, OECD STAN
  working paper · Section V, footnote 11
• Return on capital employed and net income to assets Firm characteristics and productivity
  ROCE is operating income divided by book equity plus book debt; net income to assets is after-tax profits over book value of assets; assets measured as log assets in 2000 DKK.
  Registers: KOB
  working paper · Section II.B; footnote 13

• Work accident with permanent earning-capacity loss Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Work accident reports from Labour Market Insurance (AES) with an estimated earning capacity loss (ECL) > 0, excluding psychological shocks; collapsed to person-year. Earning capacity loss is estimated upfront by AES. Milder accidents without permanent loss serve as placebo.
  Registers: AES
  working paper · Section 1.3; footnote 7; Appendix Table A.2
• Access to reskilling Education and test scores
  Indicator that the worker's vocational degree grants direct entry to relevant higher education programmes (e.g. carpenters, electricians, welders) versus comparable trades that require three years of high school first (e.g. blacksmiths, iron and metal workers, manufacturing technicians). Reskilling = participation in higher education by year +10.
  Registers: UDDA
  working paper · Section 2.2; Figure 1 notes
• Antidepressant use Health care use
  Dummy indicating a prescription for drugs in ATC class N06A (Antidepressants) in the year.
  Registers: Prescription Drug Database (LMDB)
  Codes: ATC N06A
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, row 19
• Opioid use Health care use
  Dummy indicating a prescription for drugs in ATC class N02A (Opioids).
  Registers: Prescription Drug Database (LMDB)
  Codes: ATC N02A
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, row 25
• Alcohol diagnoses Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Accumulated number of hospital diagnoses related to alcohol following Browning and Heinesen (2012): alcohol poisoning, addiction syndrome, delirious abstinence, alcohol psychosis, oesophageal varices, alcoholic liver disease, alcoholic pancreatic disease.
  Registers: LPR
  Codes: ICD-10 F100, F102, F104, F105, I85, K70, K860, T500, T510
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, row 24
• Cardiovascular / respiratory diagnoses; suicide attempts Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Accumulated number of hospital diagnoses in ICD-10 chapter I (circulatory) or J (respiratory); accumulated hospitalisations where the reason for contact is registered as a suicide attempt (or accident).
  Registers: LPR
  Codes: ICD-10 chapter I; ICD-10 chapter J
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, rows 21-23, 26
• Full-time and employment Employment and labour force status
  Full-time = full-time work according to RAS, defined by normal working hours above 32 hours/week. Employment = full-time work while not enrolled in a post-secondary programme and not receiving DI (DI = any weeks in the year on disability insurance). Stable pre-injury employment = full-time in all three years before the accident.
  Registers: RAS, IDA
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, rows 10, 15-17; Section 1.3
• Hours worked (FTE) Hours worked
  2008-2017: yearly number of paid hours; 1995-2007: yearly labour income divided by hourly wage rate (November job). Divided by 1,924 full-time-equivalent yearly hours (37 hours/week).
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, rows 11-12
• Labour income Earnings and income
  Total labour market income including bonuses, fringe benefits, wages paid during sick and parental leave, and employer pension contributions.
  Registers: IDA
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, row 9
• Stable partner / partner retention Family links, fertility and household
  Stable partner = cohabiting (including married) with the same partner for 3 consecutive years; partners are the initial partner in the year before the accident, followed regardless of separation; outcome = share still in the relationship.
  Registers: BEF
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, row 3; Section 2.1; Figure 3 notes
• Physical-cognitive ability gap Occupation and job hierarchy
  ln(Physical Ability Requirements / Cognitive Ability Requirements) of the occupation, using O*NET importance of strength and stamina items vs. reasoning and idea items; both normalised.
  Registers: IDA, O*NET
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, row 18
• Union membership Employment and labour force status
  Dummy for a positive deductible union-fee amount reported by unions to the tax authorities.
  Registers: IND
  working paper · Appendix Table A.1, row 14
• Education level and years of schooling Education and test scores
  Years of schooling = prescribed years of study of highest completed degree counting from grade 1. Highest completed degree groups: Primary (pre-school, primary, preparatory courses, Danish language courses at language centres); Vocational (VET, qualifying programmes, labour market educations AMU); Secondary (upper secondary); Post-secondary (short-cycle higher, vocational bachelor, bachelor, master, PhD). School = enrolled in a post-secondary programme in the year.
  Registers: UDDA
  online appendix · Supplementary Appendix, Table A.1 Panel B-C
• Hourly wage Earnings and income
  2008-2017: yearly total labour income divided by yearly hours worked; 1995-2007: average hourly wage rate in the November job, reliable only for individuals working more than 20 hours a week.
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Supplementary Appendix, Table A.1 Panel C
• Labour market experience and DI receipt Employment and labour force status
  Labour market experience measured in years since 1964. DI = any weeks within the year spent receiving disability insurance.
  Registers: IDA
  online appendix · Supplementary Appendix, Table A.1 Panel C
• Hospital visits, accidents and mortality Health care use
  Hospital visits = number of hospital contacts (admissions, outpatient treatment and ER visits). Accidents = accumulated hospitalisations with reason for contact registered as an accident. Mortality = accumulated, individual counted as deceased from the year of death.
  Registers: LPR, Death register
  online appendix · Supplementary Appendix, Table A.1 Panel E
• Work accident sample and matched controls Sample definition and timing
  Universe of work accidents causing earning-capacity loss 1998-2017, restricted stepwise: ECL > 0; exclude psychological shock; collapse to person-year; person exists in register data; full-time employed before injury; vocational degrees with (or comparable without) access; male craft workers. Each injured worker matched to a random non-injured worker with the same age, gender, education, occupation, industry and access to higher education in the year before the accident (plus stable partner and parent indicators); controls inherit the year of injury of their match.
  Registers: AES, IDA, BEF, UDDA
  online appendix · Supplementary Appendix, Table A.1 Panel F and Table A.2
• Inverse probability weights for access Sample definition and timing
  Logit propensity score for access to higher education estimated on injured workers at year e-1 using age, gender, stable partner, years of schooling, labour income, hours worked, hourly wage, experience, union membership, physical-cognitive ability gap, antidepressant prescription dummy and year of injury; No-Access workers weighted by p/(1-p) (Abadie 2005), and the matched control receives the same weight.
  Registers: IDA, UDDA, LMDB, BEF
  online appendix · Supplementary Appendix B.1

• Fatal heart attack or stroke (death event) Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Robustness version requires the spouse to die from the same cause as the index health event within 12 months.
  Registers: LPR, Death Registry
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix, Figures B.2-B.3 notes
• Mental health medication take-up Health care use
  Indicator for redeeming a prescription for psychotropic drugs classified as psycholeptics (ATC N05) or psychoanaleptics (ATC N06) by the surviving spouse, measured at monthly and annual frequency (extensive margin).
  Registers: LMDB
  Codes: ATC N05, N06
  working paper · Section I (Variable definitions)
• Household income loss Earnings and income
  Household income decomposed into seven sources for each spouse: earnings, sick pay, DI + old-age pension (OAP), other government benefits, private pensions, capital income and other income, compared between the year before (period -1) and the year after (period 1) the index event. In 2SLS the household income loss is normalized at the treatment-group mean and winsorized at the top and bottom 1 percent.
  Registers: Income Registry (IND)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix, Tables B.4-B.7 notes
• Deceased's income share (instrument) Earnings and income
  Household income loss is instrumented with an indicator for whether the deceased spouse had earnings and a quadratic in the share of household income earned by the deceased spouse in the year before the event; 2SLS uses observations for years -1 and 0 with household FE, calendar-year FE and a quadratic in the survivor's age; SEs clustered by household.
  Registers: Income Registry (IND)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix, Table B.7 notes
• Treatment/control by event timing Sample definition and timing
  Households where one spouse has a health event 1999-2018 and dies within 12 months; treatment = event in 1999-2013, control = similar event in 2004-2018 with placebo event assigned five years earlier; both spouses aged 45-80 at baseline; balanced from four years before to four years after. Specifications include household FE, calendar-year FE and a quadratic in the surviving spouse's age. For Delta = 3-7 robustness the calendar interval of treated spousal deaths is held fixed so only the control group changes. Variables are measured in the year before the actual or placebo event.
  Registers: BEF, LPR, Death Registry, IND
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix, Table B.1-B.3 and Figure B.8 notes
• Baseline psychiatric treatment Health care use
  Indicator for whether the surviving spouse had psychiatric treatment (visits to psychiatrists recorded in the Health Insurance Registry from 1990), used as a heterogeneity/control variable.
  Registers: SSSY, SYSI
  working paper · Section I (Data); Section III.B robustness
• Deceased earner status Earnings and income
  Indicator for whether the deceased spouse had labour market earnings in the year before the health event; used to split households (earner vs non-earner) and as an instrument.
  Registers: Income Registry (IND)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix, Figures B.5-B.7 notes
• Disability insurance and old-age pension rules Retirement and pensions
  DI for those below OAP age requires a loss of work capacity of at least 50 percent (assessed by municipality) and can also be granted for social reasons; paid until OAP age. OAP for all residents from full retirement age, rising from 65 to 67 for cohorts born after 1954; both means-tested against own and partner income and independent of earnings history.
  Registers: Social pension rules
  Codes: work-capacity loss >= 50%
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix A: Institutional Background

• Default liquid wealth Wealth, debt and consumption
  Third-party-reported year-end value of current accounts, savings accounts and securities accounts (bank deposits and listed securities); excludes durables, real estate and pension accounts and does not net out debt. Available for the full population; mirrors the 'default wealth' the authorities use for the old-age check asset test.
  Registers: IND, Statistics Denmark administrative wealth registers
  paper · Section I.A and I.C; Table 1 notes; Figure 1 notes
• Reported liquid wealth Wealth, debt and consumption
  Default liquid wealth plus self-reported corrections submitted via the government website (e.g. adding cash, reducing account balances); available only for individuals above the statutory retirement age. The variable available to the authors does not capture corrections made close to year-end.
  Registers: SOCP, IND
  paper · Section I.A and I.C; Table 1 notes
• Total wealth Wealth, debt and consumption
  Default liquid wealth plus pension wealth and housing wealth, net of liabilities (approximates total net wealth for the low-income elderly).
  Registers: IND, PENSFORM
  paper · Figure 1 notes (panel B)
• Old-age check eligibility (age and income) Retirement and pensions
  Age-eligible = aged 65 or older (statutory retirement age in the sample period). Low-income (income-eligible) = income, net of social security and before self-reported corrections, below the threshold at which the old-age check is fully phased out (disregard DKK 42,000, phase-out rate 34% for singles in 2020). Asset test: check lost entirely when liquid wealth at end of t-1 exceeds DKK 90,000 (2020 value; threshold raised 15% in 2010). For the 2001-2007 reform analysis the 2003 income threshold is applied throughout.
  Registers: IND, SOCP, BEF
  paper · Section I.A; Figure 1 and 2 notes; Supplemental Appendix Figure A.4 notes
• Treatment and control groups for bunching Sample definition and timing
  Treated: low-income singles aged 65+. Controls: low-income singles aged 60-64 (age-ineligible) and singles aged 65+ with incomes between 150% and 200% of the full phase-out income threshold. Sample restricted to singles; main cross-section pools 2014-2018 (2014-2016 for bank data).
  Registers: BEF, IND
  paper · Section I.C (Sample); Figure 1 notes (panel C)
• Excess mass below asset-test threshold Wealth, debt and consumption
  Panel version: dummy for default liquid wealth between 50% and 100% of the asset-test threshold regressed on age dummies and individual fixed effects for low-income elderly born 1941-1945, coefficients relative to age 64; bunching jumps by 2.5 points at eligibility age 65 and keeps rising with age. Liquid wealth inflated to 2020 values with the growth rate of the asset-test threshold; DKK 5,000 bins.
  Registers: IND, BEF
  Codes: 50%-100% of threshold window; reference age 64
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix, Figure A.3 notes
• Cohort-approach counterfactual Sample definition and timing
  For single income-eligible individuals born 1941-1945, compare the indexed liquid wealth distribution at ages 70-74 (five to nine years into eligibility) with ages 60-64 (before eligibility); only those income-eligible in a given year are included (unbalanced panel).
  Registers: IND, BEF
  paper · Section II (Cohort Approach); Table 1 Panel B2 notes
• Bank liquid wealth, spending and cash withdrawals Wealth, debt and consumption
  Bank data 2014-2016 used to compare spending and changes in consumer debt in December, January and other months by bank liquid wealth (DKK 5,000 bins), for age-eligible (65+) low-income singles vs age-ineligible (60-64) low-income singles.
  Registers: Danske Bank customer data
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix, Figure A.4 notes
• Old-age check parameters and indexation Retirement and pensions
  Old-age check (created 2003) parameters expressed in 2020 values by inflating with the index used to adjust tax and transfer parameters (tied to average wage earnings per worker; $1 = 6.53 DKK in 2020). Maximum check raised above indexation in 2005, 2007, 2009 and 2013; asset-test threshold raised about 15% above indexation in 2010; income test (phase-out start and end thresholds) very strict initially but unchanged in real terms since 2005 except a small increase in 2019.
  Registers: Tax-transfer rules
  Codes: $1 = 6.53 DKK (2020)
  online appendix · Supplemental Appendix, Figure A.1 notes

• Monthly household consumer spending Wealth, debt and consumption
  Sum of three types of outgoing transactions in Danske Bank accounts: card payments (including payments initiated via mobile phone apps), bill payments and cash withdrawals. Excluded: transactions unlikely to reflect consumption, such as fee payments to the bank, payments for securities purchases and uncategorized bank transfers with unobservable purpose; Merchant Category Codes are used to exclude tax payments and debt repayments. Outgoing transactions from joint accounts are split evenly between account owners before aggregating to the household. Validated against Statistics Denmark's Household Budget Survey (table FU08, total spending minus imputed owner-occupied housing) by age of oldest household member, 2009-2016.
  Registers: Danske Bank transaction data, Household Budget Survey (Statistikbanken FU08)
  Codes: Merchant Category Codes (MCC) used to drop tax payments and debt repayments
  online appendix · Online Appendix B and Figure A1 notes
• Stock market gains Wealth, debt and consumption
  Monthly gain G = sum over days in the month and securities of the payout-adjusted daily price change times the number of units held (adjusted for splits, mergers and dividends, so it includes dividends). The portfolio covers direct equity and mutual fund shares in all liquid securities accounts, excluding bonds, deposits and retirement accounts.
  Registers: Danske Bank portfolio and price data
  working paper · Section 2.1, eq. (1)
• Passive gains (instrument) and portfolio controls Wealth, debt and consumption
  Passive gains are the gains earned in the month by the portfolio held at the beginning of the month, used to instrument actual gains. Controls are full interactions of portfolio size (stock value on the last day of the previous month), risk (SD of portfolio returns over the past 12 months) and expected return (mean monthly return over the past 12 months).
  Registers: Danske Bank portfolio and price data
  working paper · Sections 2.1 and 3
• Net investment in stocks Wealth, debt and consumption
  Gross purchases net of gross sales, computed residually as the total change in portfolio value minus the change due to capital gains.
  Registers: Danske Bank portfolio data
  working paper · Section 2.1
• Liquidity Wealth, debt and consumption
  Liquid assets (deposits, stocks and other securities) at the beginning of the month relative to average monthly income; household-months are ranked within month and split into terciles.
  Registers: Danske Bank data, Tax register (income)
  working paper · Section 4.3 (Heterogeneity)
• Financial attention (logins) Other
  Number of days in a month on which a household member logs into any Danske Bank account (not only brokerage), averaged over months, and split into within-month terciles.
  Registers: Danske Bank online login data
  working paper · Sections 2.1 and 4.3
• Estimation sample Sample definition and timing
  Robustness variants: Full sample (keeps households invested in a firm that is the main employer of a household member); Exclusive (drops households with accounts in banks other than Danske Bank); Excl. own industry (ignores investments in industries where household members are employed when building the portfolio); Excl. unlisted (drops households with unlisted shares); Future returns (adds interactions of average passive return since month 2 in 20 bins, portfolio size at start of month 1 in 100 bins, and calendar month, for positive horizons). Spending validation sample requires at least one spending transaction per month for each adult and at least five summed across adults.
  Registers: Danske Bank data, Employment register, Tax register (bank account reports)
  online appendix · Online Appendix A, Figure A5 and Figure A1 notes
• Household aggregation and controls Family links, fertility and household
  Households are formed from population-register identifiers linking cohabiting couples and dependants; spending, income and stock variables are summed within household. Controls: age of the oldest member, number of children, and highest education in the household (primary, high school, college, graduate).
  Registers: Population register, Education register
  working paper · Section 2.2; Section 3.3
• Household balance sheet (tax records) Wealth, debt and consumption
  End-of-year measures from tax records: total assets = financial assets plus housing; financial assets = securities plus bank deposits; risky share = risky assets / total financial assets. DKK amounts converted to USD at the 2009-16 average rate of 5.85 DKK/USD.
  Registers: Tax register (IND / wealth records)
  Codes: 5.85 DKK/USD
  online appendix · Online Appendix A, Table A1 notes

• Foreign adoptee Family links, fertility and household
  Children who (1) were born in a non-western country, (2) have two known parents born in a western country, (3) whose parents both had a legal address in Denmark with no emigration record at the time of birth, and (4) have a recorded entry (immigration record) into the Central Person Register after the date of birth. Validated against Statistics Denmark official adoption records (1988-2009), with virtually no type I or type II errors; about 16,260 foreign adoptees 1980-2017, mostly from Asia (South Korea, India, China), Latin America (Colombia) and Africa.
  Registers: CPR, BEF, Adoption registry (Statistics Denmark)
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.I notes and Table A.I
• Event sample (first child arrival) Sample definition and timing
  Stepwise restrictions: children with known parents born 1980-2017 (16,260 adoptive / 2,454,200 biological); born 1985-2007; first-born only; siblings all of the same type (biological or adoptive); adoptees arrived before age 5; parents balanced on event time (final 4,580 adoptive / 527,000 biological).
  Registers: BEF, CPR
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Table A.II
• Annual earnings Earnings and income
  Annual income from wages, salaries and self-employment.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark income registers
  working paper · Section 2 (Data)
• Hours worked and wage rate Hours worked
  Hours worked from administrative, third-party-reported data on contributions to the mandated ATP (Arbejdsmarkedets Tillaegspension) pension scheme, which employers pay based on employees' individual hours worked. The wage rate is earnings divided by hours worked.
  Registers: ATP
  working paper · Section 2 (Data)
• Reweighting of biological families Sample definition and timing
  Baseline reweighting of the biological sample on pre-birth variables (year of first child, mother's age at first child, mother's pre-child education and pre-child earnings) plus subsequent-children variables (years to second child, total number of children); alternatives use no reweighting or pre-birth variables only.
  Registers: BEF, UDDA, IND
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.III notes
• Relative female earnings potential Earnings and income
  Baseline measured just before the arrival of the first child (event time -1), splitting women at the median. Forward-looking (potentially endogenous) alternatives measure it 10 years after first child arrival, after 15 years of experience, or at age 45.
  Registers: UDDA, IND
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.IV notes

• Treated (non-EU) immigrants Immigration and origin
  First-generation immigrants from outside the EU and the four EFTA countries (Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland), who are subject to the immigrant welfare scheme. 'Inside the EU' is defined by member countries in the pre-scheme year 2001, to avoid confounding from later EU enlargements.
  Registers: CPR, BEF
  Codes: EU membership as of 2001 + EFTA
  working paper · Section 2.1 and footnote 6
• Net immigration flow Immigration and origin
  Year-to-year change in the stock of first-generation immigrants residing in Denmark according to the Central Person Register, by group, scaled by the group's pre-scheme (2001) immigrant stock and residualized on a linear group-specific trend estimated on 1980-2001.
  Registers: CPR
  working paper · Section 3, footnote 11 and eq. (1)
• Inflow by residence permit type Immigration and origin
  Immigration flows by type of residence permit granted (asylum, family, work, study; available from 1997). Asylum and family permit holders are treated as potentially welfare-eligible; work/study permit holders as untreated. Asylum applications are used as a supplementary measure.
  Registers: Residence permit data (Statistics Denmark)
  working paper · Section 3, Figure 3, footnote 12
• Welfare benefit groups and maximum monthly benefit Unemployment and benefits
  Maximum monthly cash benefits (2018 USD) for non-employed households at age 40 out of work for three months; with children, the first child is aged 10 and the second aged 8. Danish scheme benefits from STAR (Danish Agency for Labour Market and Recruitment) website; other benefits computed with the OECD tax-benefit calculator. Only cash welfare, excluding UI and in-kind benefits such as housing support.
  Registers: STAR scheme rules, OECD tax-benefit calculator
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.II notes
• Age restriction (24-Year Rule) Sample definition and timing
  Main within-country specification restricts to immigrants at least 30 years old, to avoid confounding from the 2002 '24-Year Rule' requiring both spouses to be at least 24 for marriage-based residency. The cross-country analysis has no age restriction.
  Registers: CPR, BEF
  working paper · Section 2.1 and footnote 7
• Synthetic Denmark (cross-country control) Immigration and origin
  Weighted average of Finland (0.468), Norway (0.361) and Sweden (0.171), chosen to match 1991-2001 non-EU/EFTA net immigration flows normalized by each country's 2001 non-EU/EFTA immigrant stock. Immigrants from the former Yugoslavia are dropped throughout to remove the Bosnia shock.
  Registers: Nordic national statistics bureaus, OECD International Migration Database
  working paper · Section 3 (cross-country strategy), footnote 18; Appendix Figure A.IV notes
• First- and second-generation immigrant Immigration and origin
  Official Statistics Denmark definitions: a first-generation immigrant is born outside Denmark with neither parent being both a Danish citizen and born in Denmark; a second-generation immigrant (descendant) is born in Denmark with neither parent being both a Danish citizen and born in Denmark.
  Registers: CPR, BEF
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Figure A.III notes
• Asylum applications Immigration and origin
  Asylum applications to Denmark from outside the EU at annual and quarterly frequency: applications submitted (available from 2000), applications registered for administrative review, and residence permits granted to asylum seekers; asylum seekers from Bosnia dropped. An inflow measure without a control group, used to validate timing of responses.
  Registers: Statistikbanken tables VAN5 and VAN77
  Codes: Statistikbanken VAN5, VAN77
  online appendix · Online Appendix, Section B and Figures A.IV-A.V

• Crime (conviction for offence committed in year t) Crime
  Indicator equal to one if the individual is convicted of a crime committed in year t, dated by offence year and scaled to 100 in event-study figures. Offence types are classified as economic/non-economic and as property/sexual/violent (the latter following Statistics Denmark's system), covering 4,732,529 crimes 1980-2018.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark crime registers
  Codes: Offence classification in Online Appendix Table I.I
  online appendix · Online Appendix H eq. (15)-(16); Table I.I; Figure I.6 notes
• Time from offence to apprehension Crime
  Log of one plus the days between when a crime is committed and when the perpetrator is apprehended, using the median time if the person commits multiple crimes in a year; only observations in the offence year are used.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark crime registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table I.IX notes
• Decline in 5-year survival probability due to cancer Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Logit of dying within 5 years, estimated on people aged 18-62 in 1980-2013 (diagnosed plus up to ten exactly matched controls per case) with cancer-type indicators (14 types plus multiple), age polynomial interactions, post-cancer, gender and marriage controls, separately for 1980-1992, 1993-2003 and 2004-2013. The decline is predicted probability minus the counterfactual with no diagnosis. Low survival means an above-median decline within gender (also split by quintile).
  Registers: Cancer register, Death register, Population registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix E
• Exact-matched controls for survival estimation Sample definition and timing
  For each diagnosed individual, controls who in the year before diagnosis share age, marital status and gender and are in the same income ventile and years-of-education quintile. Up to ten controls with the smallest difference in total income are kept; unmatched observations are dropped.
  Registers: Population, income and education registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix E
• Treatment/control (Fadlon-Nielsen DiD) Sample definition and timing
  Alternative design comparing individuals diagnosed in a given year with those diagnosed Delta years later (Delta from 3 to 8), with person, year-by-age, in-prison and cancer-recurrence fixed effects. The baseline sample keeps only the 10 years before cancer for pre-diagnosis observations.
  Registers: Cancer register, Crime registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix H; Appendix A
• Change in municipal welfare generosity (2007 reform) Unemployment and benefits
  Percentage change in labour income plus transfers in post-diagnosis years relative to the five-year pre-diagnosis average, regressed on municipality fixed effects, age fixed effects, a cubic in pre-diagnosis income rank and year effects, separately pre-reform (1987-2006) and post-reform (2007-2018). People diagnosed 2004-2006 are excluded. The generosity change is the difference between post- and pre-reform municipality effects.
  Registers: Income registers (IND), Population register (municipality)
  online appendix · Online Appendix G, eq. (14)
• Psychological distress Health care use
  Indicator for having received treatment by a psychologist or psychiatrist following the cancer diagnosis, from data on medical visits.
  Registers: Health insurance / medical visits data (name not given)
  online appendix · Online Appendix F; Table I.VI

Replication package

• Treatment assignment and study population Sample definition and timing
  Work units (314 units of eldercare workers across 110 employers in 11 municipalities) were randomised in September 2008, with 144 units (46%) assigned to Healthy-at-Work. The population is individuals employed at participating work units in the month just before randomisation (7,541 of 7,660 linked to registers). Treatment status is fixed at the initial randomisation month, so post-randomisation moves are ignored and estimates are intention-to-treat.
  Registers: Healthy-at-Work experimental records, Statistics Denmark registers (CPR-linked)
  working paper · Sections 2.1, 3 and 4 (treatment assignment)
• High-risk group Health care use
  Individuals with an above-median number of primary care physician consultations in the six months before randomisation; the low-risk group is at or below the median.
  Registers: Primary care physician consultation records (Statistics Denmark)
  working paper · Notes to Tables 2-5
• Primary care physician consultations Health care use
  Number of consultations (and any consultation) with the primary care physician, from register data on fee-for-service payments to primary care physicians; follow-up to 2020. The paper does not give the register name or speciality codes.
  Registers: Primary care physician fee-for-service records (Statistics Denmark)
  working paper · Section 3; Section 4 results; cost-benefit section
• Prescription drug purchases Health care use
  Any prescription drug purchase and months' supply per year (through 2019), covering drugs for hypertension, cholesterol, diabetes, severe pain relief and depression.
  Registers: Prescription drug purchase records (Statistics Denmark)
  Codes: ATC C9 (hypertension, as printed), C10, A10, N2, N05A, N05B, N05C, N06A
  working paper · Table 3 notes
• Hospitalisations (psychiatric / somatic) Health care use
  Any hospital contact and number of days admitted to hospital, separately for contacts with a psychiatric diagnosis and with a somatic diagnosis; follow-up to 2018. Diagnosis code lists are not given.
  Registers: Hospital contact records (Statistics Denmark)
  working paper · Table 4 panels A-D
• Sickness absence Employment and labour force status
  Any absence and yearly absence rate (share of scheduled hours missed), conditional on hours > 0. Absence data cover about 95% of the sample.
  Registers: Absence register (Statistics Denmark; name not given)
  working paper · Table 5 panels A-B; Table 1 notes
• Hours, employer continuity and earnings Employment and labour force status
  Any hours worked, hours worked per year, continued employment with the same employer (turnover measure), and earnings per year.
  Registers: Employment registers (Statistics Denmark; names not given)
  working paper · Table 5 panels C-F
• Spouses (spillover sample) Family links, fertility and household
  Individuals married to or cohabiting with individuals employed at participating work units in the month just prior to randomisation.
  Registers: Population register (Statistics Denmark)
  working paper · Table 6 notes (spillovers to spouses)

Replication package

• Child sample Sample definition and timing
  Everyone born in Denmark 1980-1987 with both parents known in BEF and known parental origin. Observed in the year they turn 30, kept only if fully liable to pay taxes in Denmark (AKM register) and resident in Denmark (BEF). Children missing any outcome or control are dropped (missing parental occupation and education allowed), as are children whose parents were not in the population at birth.
  Registers: BEF, AKM
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1
• First-generation locals (parental birthplace groups) Immigration and origin
  Groups based on the parents' country of birth in BEF: two parents born in Denmark (reference), two parents born outside Denmark, one parent born in Denmark and one abroad, and at least one parent born in Greenland or the Faroe Islands. Origin regions: Middle East = MENAP+MENAT (incl. some North African countries, Israel, Turkey, Pakistan, Afghanistan); Europe split into Nordics, EU-15 ex. Nordic (incl. UK), EU-13 (incl. Cyprus) and non-EU (incl. Yugoslavia).
  Registers: BEF
  Codes: Country list per region in Online Appendix Table OA.1
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1 and Table OA.1; paper Section II.A fn. 4
• Low-income origin Immigration and origin
  A first-generation local is 'low income origin' if at least one parent comes from a country whose 1980 GDP per capita (World Bank, supplemented with UN data) was below 4,000 USD at 2022 prices. Parents with only continent observed are assigned by the majority in that continent.
  Registers: BEF, World Bank WDI NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
  Codes: 1980 GDP per capita < 4,000 USD (2022 levels)
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1
• Annual labour market income (earnings at 30) Earnings and income
  Aggregate labour market income including wage income and profits from self-employment in the year the child turns 30, in 2013 prices (CPI-deflated). Also used as an income rank, IHS and log.
  Registers: IND
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1; paper Section III
• Hourly wage Earnings and income
  Hourly wage from monthly hours and monthly earnings for employees in the monthly register (available from 2008; self-employed excluded), in 2013 prices. Jobs are excluded if the hourly wage is above 5,000 or below 30 DKK, annual hours are above 3,500 or below 7.4, or total wages are above 10,000,000 or below 1,000 DKK.
  Registers: IDAN
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1
• Unemployment Unemployment and benefits
  Not working for at least half of the year and not being retired (child at age 30; parents' years of unemployment counted over the child's first 21 years).
  Registers: AKM
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1; paper fn. 5
• Transfers / public benefits Unemployment and benefits
  Yearly sum of all transfers primarily financed by government institutions, including all unemployment benefits, child benefits, housing support, student benefits and all public pensions, in 2013 prices.
  Registers: IND
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1; paper fn. 6
• Prison sentence by 30 Crime
  Indicator equal to one if the child has ever been sentenced to prison, suspended or unsuspended, by the end of the year in which they turn 30.
  Registers: KRAF
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1
• Guilty and dropped/not-guilty charges Crime
  Counts by end of the year turning 30 of guilty charges and of charges dropped without conditions or ending in a not-guilty verdict (following the Danish Institute for Human Rights 2022). Charges dropped with conditions (e.g. payment of a fine) count as guilty. Traffic Law (Faerdselsloven) offences are excluded. The share dropped/not guilty is computed among those with at least one charge.
  Registers: KRSI, KRKO, KRAF
  Codes: Excludes Faerdselsloven (traffic law) charges
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1
• Parental background controls Family links, fertility and household
  For each parent: aggregate income (2013 prices) over the child's first 21 years; years of unemployment over those years; occupation as 2-digit ISCO88 of the primary job when the child is 21, with extra categories for retired, unemployed and unknown; and years of education when the child is 21 (UDDA, foreign education from the arrival survey, rounded to an integer).
  Registers: IND, AKM, UDDA, BEF
  Codes: ISCO88 2-digit
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1; paper Section II.C
• Years of education by 30 Education and test scores
  Completed years of education by age 30 from the education register; foreign education of immigrants is registered on arrival via a survey, which causes missingness. Rounded to the nearest integer in regressions.
  Registers: UDDA
  online appendix · Online Appendix OA.1

Replication package

• Radiotherapy receipt Health care use
  Indicator for receiving adjuvant radiation therapy, from the DBCG clinical Breast Cancer Database, which records treatments administered and dates of diagnosis and major interventions.
  Registers: DBCG clinical Breast Cancer Database
  working paper · Section 3 (Data), Treatment Variable
• T95 group and instrument Sample definition and timing
  Instrument is the interaction between an indicator for belonging to the T95 group and an indicator for diagnosis in or after 1995. The comparison group consists of 'always eligible' and 'never eligible' women (eligible or not eligible for radiotherapy regardless of year of diagnosis); full analysis sample N = 2,823. Robustness drops women diagnosed in 1994, women residing in areas with pilot universal screening programs, or women with breast-conserving surgery.
  Registers: DBCG clinical database
  online appendix · Notes to Appendix Tables A4, A9 and Figures A4-A5
• Analysis sample Sample definition and timing
  Female breast cancer patients diagnosed 1990-1998 (26,900), restricted to DBCG89 trial enrollees who are pre-menopausal and high-risk, excluding always-eligible patients whose radiotherapy intensity changed, patients missing radiotherapy, tumour size or micro-radical removal information, and women aged 55+ at diagnosis (final N = 2,823).
  Registers: DBCG clinical Breast Cancer Database
  working paper · Section 3 (Analysis Sample); Appendix Table A1
• All-cause and breast cancer mortality Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Indicators for death from any cause and from breast cancer, using the exact date and ICD-coded cause of death in the Register of Causes of Death, measured for each year from the date of diagnosis up to 10 years after.
  Registers: Register of Causes of Death
  working paper · Section 3, Outcome Variables
• Employed / unemployed / out of labour force Employment and labour force status
  Indicators of labour market status as of November from the Register-Based Labour Force Statistics, for each calendar year from diagnosis up to 10 years later. Non-survivors are assigned one for out of the labour force and zero for all other labour market outcomes.
  Registers: RAS
  working paper · Section 3, Outcome Variables
• Labour earnings and gross income Earnings and income
  Monetary outcomes are expressed in thousands of 2015 DKK; labour-market outcomes are averaged over 1-5 and 6-10 years after diagnosis; pre-diagnosis characteristics (employment status, labour earnings, gross personal income) are averaged over 2-4 years before diagnosis.
  Registers: Income Statistics Register
  online appendix · Notes to Appendix Table A1 and Figures A4-A5
• Sickness and disability benefit receipt Unemployment and benefits
  Transfer outcomes (any government transfer/any welfare, sickness benefits, disability pension) are indicators measured cumulatively within 5 (or 10) years after diagnosis, not as annual averages.
  Registers: DREAM
  online appendix · Appendix Table A3; Figure A4-A5 notes
• Clinical eligibility controls Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  All possible interactions among indicators for: mastectomy, age <45 at diagnosis, number of positive nodes (0, 1-3, 4+), tumor larger than 50mm, and tumor removed micro-radically; plus separate indicators for age at diagnosis in full years, tumor size in cm, number of positive nodes (0, 1-3, 4+), micro-radical removal, type of surgery (lumpectomy, mastectomy, or lumpectomy followed by mastectomy), and chemotherapy type (DBCG89 trial arm: CMF, CEF, OA, tamoxifen regimens, pamidronate arms); and year-of-diagnosis fixed effects. Standard errors clustered by hospital.
  Registers: DBCG clinical database
  Codes: nodes 0/1-3/4+; tumor >50mm; age <45
  online appendix · Notes to Appendix Tables A2-A4, A9
• Radiotherapy eligibility under DBCG89 protocol Health care use
  DBCG89 protocol (age eligibility <75 years). Low risk (as printed in the appendix protocol table): tumor <=5cm and positive nodes and grade I (if premenopausal); high risk: tumor >5cm or positive nodes or (premenopausal and ductal grade II-III). Radiotherapy indicated after lumpectomy, when the carcinoma was not removed microradically, and additionally for: age <=45 with >=4 positive nodes (until January 1995); premenopausal with positive nodes or tumor >5cm (from January 1995). Positive nodes = cancer spread to at least one lymph node.
  Registers: Danish Breast Cancer Cooperative Group (DBCG) clinical database
  Codes: tumor >5cm; >=4 positive nodes; age <=45; age <75
  online appendix · Appendix Figure A1 (DBCG89 protocol)
• Cumulative hospital contacts Health care use
  Cumulative number of inpatient and outpatient hospital contacts from diagnosis until each year after diagnosis (separate outcomes).
  online appendix · Appendix Figure A8 notes

• Household SES index Family links, fertility and household
  Population rank (uniform on the unit interval) of the first principal component of four household variables: INC = highest market-income rank among adults in the household; LCE = any adult has completed a long-cycle education; NE = any adult has no education beyond primary school or no registered education; EMP = any adult is employed. With z-scored inputs, SES = 0.62 INC + 0.38 LCE - 0.44 NE + 0.53 EMP (47 percent of variance explained).
  Registers: Statistics Denmark registers (income, education, employment)
  online appendix · Online Appendix A (Construction of SES index), equation (1)
• School SES (average school SES) Education and test scores
  Mean of the household SES index among seven-year-old children enrolled in a school in a given school-year.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure B.2 notes
• School non-Western share Immigration and origin
  Share of non-Western children in the school, used as an alternative school characteristic; it is interacted with a household non-Western dummy. The appendix does not state the exact origin coding.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Tables B.6-B.7 notes, Figure B.2
• Compliance / enrolment in assigned school Education and test scores
  Binary indicator equal to one if the child is enrolled at age 7 in the district (attendance-zone) school that corresponds to the child's address at age 5. Control units are artificially assigned to nearby recipient schools. An alternative version uses enrolment in the assigned school at age 7 (see main text Section 5.4).
  Registers: Statistics Denmark registers (school enrolment, addresses)
  online appendix · Online Appendix Tables B.2-B.4 notes, Figure B.4 notes
• Margins of non-compliance (opt-out) Education and test scores
  Three binary outcomes measured at age 7 relative to the address at age 5: enrolled in another public school, enrolled in a private school, or moved out of the district between ages 5 and 7. Aggregate non-compliance is their sum.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark registers (school enrolment, addresses)
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure B.3 notes
• Population density categories Geography and neighbourhood
  Low density: less than 1,000 per sq. km; medium: 1,000-5,000 per sq. km; high: more than 5,000 per sq. km. Used to describe enrolment for all children aged 7 in 2008-2015.
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure B.1 notes

Replication package

• Refugee sample and reform treatment Immigration and origin
  Refugees and persons family-reunified with refugees granted residency 1 January 2001-31 December 2003 aged 18-55 (Danish Immigration Service permit records), excluding Afghans and former Yugoslavs and those re-migrating within 9 years (4,843 adults). Treatment: residency granted after 1 July 2002 (Start Aid); running variable is the exact residency date relative to the cutoff.
  Registers: Danish Immigration Service residence permit records
  working paper · Section 2.4; Appendix B.2
• Income measures and public expenditure Earnings and income
  From the income register, measured from the first year post residency: labor earnings (pre-tax), transfers (pre-tax), pre-tax gross income (= labor earnings + transfers for this sample), and post-tax disposable income (= gross income minus tax payments). Public expenditure on refugees = transfer payments minus tax payments.
  Registers: Income register (Statistics Denmark, third-party reported)
  online appendix · Online Appendix B.2 Data Construction and Definitions
• Hourly wage rate Hours worked
  Register hourly wage rate estimated as annual labor earnings divided by annual hours worked; distributional effects estimated using dummies 1[wage <= x] for x from $0 to $40.
  Registers: Income register; register hours/wage data
  online appendix · Online Appendix B.2; Figure A.4 notes
• Labor market status Employment and labour force status
  Three mutually exclusive states (employment, unemployment, not in the labor force) as defined by the ILO, from the register-based labour force statistics (RAS). In the 2012 repeal analysis employment is instead defined as non-zero labor earnings in a calendar year.
  Registers: RAS (Registerbaseret arbejdsstyrkestatistik) / labour market registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix B.2
• Occupation skill categories Occupation and job hierarchy
  Occupations (ILO ISCO) grouped into seven categories by type and skill intensity: (i) high skills/manager, (ii) medium skills/office related, (iii) sales/services, (iv) vocational work requiring medium/basic skills, (v) construction/primary sector work requiring basic skills, (vi) unspecified self-employment, (vii) unskilled manual labor requiring few/no skills. 'Jobs requiring some skills' = (i)-(vi); 'unskilled manual labor' = (vii).
  Registers: Occupation codes (ISCO) from Statistics Denmark employment registers
  Codes: ISCO-based 7-group classification (no numeric codes listed)
  online appendix · Online Appendix B.2
• Crime convictions by offence date Crime
  Convictions for offences against the criminal code (Central Police register labels, e.g. 'theft from supermarket'), defined as court rulings or pre-court settlements of guilt resulting in a sentence (fine, suspended sentence or imprisonment), dated by the exact offence date; 'crime in year 1' = offences committed within the first 365 days after residency. Crime types used: all crime, property crime, theft in supermarket, violence.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark crime registers (convictions, charges) from courts and police
  Codes: Sentence = fine, suspended sentence or imprisonment
  online appendix · Online Appendix B.2; Figure A.9
• Local labor demand: low/unskilled job openings per unemployed Geography and neighbourhood
  Job openings for low- and unskilled work posted on Jobindex.dk (from 2002) counted by postal code and aggregated to municipality, divided by the municipality's stock of unemployed (population register residence x labour market register unemployment), averaged over 2002 and 2003. Because postings only exist from 2002, the ratio is predicted from 1999-2001 municipal employment conditions (average employment rate, non-Western immigrant employment rate, unskilled employment rate, immigrants' average labor earnings and their interactions). Municipalities ranked 0-1 and split at the unweighted median (low-demand ~0.17, high-demand ~0.32 openings per unemployed).
  Registers: Jobindex.dk postings; population register (BEF); labour market register
  Codes: Median split of predicted ratio
  online appendix · Online Appendix B.2 and Figure B.1
• Non-Western immigrant employment rate (municipality) Geography and neighbourhood
  Fraction of 20-60-year-old non-Western immigrants in a municipality who are employed, 1999-2001, using population-register data recorded on January 1 (country of origin, age, municipality) merged with individual employment from labour market registers; municipalities ranked 0-1 and split at the median (low ~0.39 vs high ~0.55).
  Registers: Population register (BEF); labour market registers
  Codes: Age 20-60; years 1999-2001
  online appendix · Online Appendix B.2
• 2012 repeal event-study cohorts Sample definition and timing
  Adults aged 18-55 at residency who received residency 2008-2014. For year-1 outcomes the treatment group is those granted residency 2012-2014; for year-2 outcomes it is those granted residency 2011-2013. Employment = non-zero labor earnings in the calendar year; outcomes only for two years after residency.
  Registers: Danish Immigration Service records; income register
  Codes: Residency 2008-2014; repeal 1 Jan 2012
  online appendix · Online Appendix B.2
• Low disposable income indicators Earnings and income
  Indicators for having post-tax disposable income below $500, $750 and $1,000 per month, where monthly income = annual disposable income (year 1, year 2, or years 3-5) divided by 12.
  Registers: Income register
  Codes: Thresholds $500, $750, $1,000 per month (2010 PPP USD)
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.19 notes
• Type A / Type B refugee couples Family links, fertility and household
  Type A couples: both spouses receive residency after the Start Aid reform (July 2002). Type B couples: one spouse receives residency before and one after the reform.
  Registers: Danish Immigration Service residence permit records
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.1 notes; Figure A.3
• Robustness samples (donut, bandwidth, placebo) Sample definition and timing
  Donut sample excludes two months of residency dates on each side of the reform; reduced bandwidth +/- 12 months; placebo reforms from -5 to +5 months each using +/- 18 months around the placebo date; extended sample adds Afghan and ex-Yugoslavian refugees.
  Registers: Danish Immigration Service records
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.11 notes; Figure A.5 notes
• Labor migrant comparison sample Immigration and origin
  Labor migrants not eligible for Social Assistance/Start Aid: non-EU/EEA citizens with a work visa (requiring a pre-existing job contract in Denmark) and EU/EEA citizens excluding students; first migration to Denmark only; employment = any employment in Denmark in a given year.
  Registers: Residence permit records; employment registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.13 notes

• Refugee family sample and age at exposure Sample definition and timing
  Danish Immigration Service residence permits granted 1997-2006 (252,795 permits; 67,375 to refugees: 44,232 new refugees, 23,143 family reunification), merged with the Historical Migrations database (residency date, origin, emigration); base sample = refugees granted residency within 18 months of the 2002 Start Aid reform, families with children at residence; refugees from Afghanistan and the former Yugoslavia excluded due to concurrent processing changes. Child age groups at residency 0-7, 8-14 (7-14 in some tables) and 14-18. 'Refugee permit status' = 1 if granted on asylum grounds, 0 if family-reunified spouse/child of a refugee. Standard errors clustered by residency month.
  Registers: Danish Immigration Service residence permits; Historical Migrations database
  Codes: residency within +/-18 months of reform
  online appendix · Appendix B.2; Table A.3 notes
• 9th-grade GPA (standardized) Education and test scores
  Average grade over all 9th-grade exams, standardized to mean 0, SD 1 in the total population; also rank in the total population GPA distribution and quartile indicators; exams 2002-2019.
  Registers: Ministry of Education exam register
  online appendix · Appendix B.3.3; Table A.4
• 6th-grade Danish language test score Education and test scores
  Compulsory national Danish test in grade 6 (from 2009 implementation), composite of language comprehension, decoding and reading comprehension; standardized following Beuchert and Nandrup (2018).
  Registers: National tests (Ministry of Education)
  online appendix · Appendix B.3.3
• School well-being / self-esteem index Education and test scores
  Average of Likert-scored responses (Very often/Often/Sometimes/Rarely/Never) to: 'How often can you solve problems if you only try hard enough?', 'How often can you succeed in what you set out to do?', 'How often does your stomach hurt?'; standardized to mean 0, SD 1 in the full population.
  Registers: National well-being survey, Danish public schools
  online appendix · Appendix B.3.3
• Completed education Education and test scores
  Years of completed schooling from the 2020 Register on Completed Education (status on October 1); levels collapsed into (i) lower secondary (max ten years of schooling), (ii) academic high school, (iii) vocational degrees (vocational high school and short vocational college degrees), (iv) all college and university degrees.
  Registers: Register on Completed Education (2020)
  online appendix · Appendix B.3.2
• Daycare/preschool attendance Education and test scores
  Preschool enrollment measured from annual daycare register data.
  Registers: Daycare register
  online appendix · Appendix B.3.3
• Earnings, disposable income and employment Earnings and income
  Earnings = pre-tax wage earnings + self-employment income + business profits; disposable income = pre-tax earnings + public transfers - taxes; employment = positive earnings; measured from first year after residency; 2020 PPP-adjusted USD.
  Registers: Income register (tax authority records)
  Codes: employment: earnings > 0
  online appendix · Appendix B.2.1
• Criminal convictions by offence date Crime
  Convictions for offences against the criminal code (court ruling of guilt resulting in a fine, suspended sentence or imprisonment), dated by exact offence date; e.g. 'crime in year 1' = offence committed within the first 365 days after residency.
  Registers: Central Police register / crime registers
  online appendix · Appendix B.3.4
• Work/study status at age 17-18 Employment and labour force status
  For children aged 7-14 at exposure: average annual earnings at 17-18 in bins $0-1,499, $1,500-2,999, $3,000-4,499, $4,500+; working (earnings > 0) crossed with studying.
  Registers: Income register; education register
  Codes: working: earnings > 0
  online appendix · Table A.7 notes

• Reform treatment (birthdate cutoff) Retirement and pensions
  Those born on or after 1 January 1954 learned in 2011 that their early retirement age (ERA), incentivized retirement age and full retirement age (FRA) rose from 60, 62 and 65 to 60.5, 62.5 and 65.5; those born one day earlier were unaffected. Running variable is birth date relative to the cutoff; RD sample is those born within 56 days (8 weeks).
  Registers: Population register (exact date of birth)
  working paper · Sections 2.3 and 4.2
• VERP participant analysis sample Sample definition and timing
  Four cumulative restrictions: (1) Danes born within six months of the cutoff date January 1, 1954 (71,095 individuals); (2) regular participatory VERP contributors, defined as making contributions in 70% of pre-announcement years 2001-2010 (47,047); (3) balanced panel: present in the data in every year 2006-2018 (43,348); (4) drop the self-employed, defined over the pre-announcement period using Statistics Denmark's definition of an individual's main source of income (final analysis sample 40,042).
  Registers: Population register, VERP contribution records, Statistics Denmark main source of income classification
  Codes: birthdate within +/-6 months of 1954-01-01; VERP contributions in >=70% of years 2001-2010; balanced 2006-2018
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.1 and notes
• Contributions to employer-sponsored and personal retirement accounts Retirement and pensions
  Annual contribution flows to employer-sponsored DC accounts in levels (winsorized at the 95th percentile by year) and indicators for positive contributions to personal retirement accounts (also indicators for contributions of various sizes).
  Registers: Labour-market/income registers (tax-reported pension contributions)
  working paper · Section 4.1
• Changes in bank, stock and property values Wealth, debt and consumption
  Year-t minus year-(t-1) year-end values of bank account balances and stock market account balances (reported by financial institutions to tax authorities) and of property cash values as assessed by tax authorities; winsorized at the 5th and 95th percentiles each year (also 10th/90th).
  Registers: Tax-reported asset registers
  working paper · Section 4.1, footnote 20
• Pre-tax earnings Earnings and income
  Income on which individuals pay the 8 percent labor market tax, winsorized by year at the 95th percentile; 2010 prices, 5.56 DKK per USD.
  Registers: Income register
  working paper · Section 4.1
• Monthly retirement age Retirement and pensions
  Absorbing-state measure from the monthly eIncome register (2008-2017): age in the last month with positive earnings before earnings permanently fall to zero.
  Registers: eIncome (eIndkomst) monthly earnings register
  working paper · Section 4.1, footnote 17
• VERP benefit claiming Retirement and pensions
  Annual Voluntary Early Retirement Pension (VERP) benefit payments.
  Registers: VERP benefit records
  working paper · Section 4.1
• Firm default contribution rate Firm characteristics and productivity
  All individuals over 18 are assigned to workplaces in 2010; individual contribution rate = employer-sponsored plan contributions divided by earnings; the firm default rate is the median contribution rate among the firm's workers in 2010. Predicted contributions = current earnings times the 2010 firm default rate.
  Registers: Linked employer-employee data, Pension contribution records
  working paper · Section 6 (employer defaults), footnote 30
• VERP participation indicator (qualified UI-fund contributions) Retirement and pensions
  Participatory VERP contribution in a year is measured as an indicator for making qualified (VERP) contributions to unemployment insurance (UI) funds in that year; VERP eligibility requires contributions in 25 of the previous 30 years.
  Registers: VERP contribution records
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.7 notes; Appendix C.2
• RD control variables Other
  Baseline RD controls: indicator for being male, indicator for being married in 2010, and indicators for region of residence in 2010 (five regions: Hovedstaden, Sjaelland, Syddanmark, Midtjylland, Nordjylland). Regressions use separate linear polynomials in birthdate on each side of the cutoff with triangular weights.
  Registers: Population register
  Codes: 5 regions as of 2010
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.2 notes
• Retirement at eligibility-age spikes Retirement and pensions
  Control group (born before cutoff): first spike = retirement age between 60y0m and 60y5m; second spike = 62y0m to 62y5m. Treatment group: first spike = 60y6m to 60y11m; second spike = 62y6m to 62y11m. 15.8% retire at the first spike and 10.6% at the second as defined.
  Codes: monthly retirement-age windows 60:00-60:05, 62:00-62:05 (control); 60:06-60:11, 62:06-62:11 (treated)
  online appendix · Online Appendix B
• Pre-reform personal retirement plan users Sample definition and timing
  Subsample of individuals who had used personal retirement plans before the reform announcement: those who made contributions to personal plans in two or three of the years 2008-2010.
  Registers: Tax-reported pension contribution records
  Codes: contributions in >=2 of 2008, 2009, 2010
  online appendix · Online Appendix table notes (personal-plan subsample)
• Outcome winsorization and time windows Sample definition and timing
  Anticipation-period outcomes are averaged over 2011-2013 and pre-announcement placebo outcomes over 2008-2010; robustness uses stricter winsorization at the 10th and 90th percentiles; an additional robustness subsample excludes individuals with real estate transactions.
  online appendix · Online Appendix Tables A.5-A.6, placebo table notes

• New UI spell and analysis sample Sample definition and timing
  UI recipients of Danish nationality entering new UI spells September 2015 to September 2017. A new UI spell starts when a person who received no UI benefits in the previous 4 weeks is observed with at least 4 consecutive weeks of UI payouts. Restrictions: spell lasts at least 8 weeks; at least 4 Joblog applications registered during the spell (counted after dropping the last 4 weeks); exits UI to employment within 52 weeks; applications from the last 4 weeks before the new job starts are dropped (median transition time 6 weeks minus an assumed 2 weeks from application to offer). Observations with an estimated propensity score above 0.99 or below 0.01 are trimmed.
  Registers: DREAM, Joblog (Jobnet), IDA, BFL
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.1 and A.6, Table A.1, fn. 39
• Job applications (Joblog) Unemployment and benefits
  Applications self-reported in the Joblog section of Jobnet during the UI spell. Only applications actually sent are kept, using the first saved version of each entry. Other Joblog events (vacancies saved for later, interviews, rejections) are excluded. Mandatory fields include job title, part-time or full-time status, and firm name, zip code and city.
  Registers: Joblog (Jobnet)
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.1, fn. 38; A.2
• Occupation of applied-for job Occupation and job hierarchy
  Self-reported job titles were cleaned and mapped to DISCO (the Danish version of ISCO) in three steps: (1) unique 1:1 occurrences of DISCO occupation names in the title (43.4% of applications); (2) manual mapping of acronyms and common titles, e.g. 'sosu-hjælper' (+27.2%); (3) fuzzy matching with SAS compget, speedist and soundex plus substring matches, keeping only consistently high-ranked matches (+10.9%). In total 81.5% of applications are matched. Occupations are used at the 1-, 2- and 3-digit levels (9, 55 and 153 groups).
  Registers: Joblog (Jobnet)
  Codes: DISCO 1-digit (9 groups), 2-digit (55), 3-digit (153)
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.2, fn. 41, fn. 43
• Industry / firm of applied-for job Sector and industry
  The reported firm name, zip code and city are matched to the CVR firm register and then to BFL. Steps: exact 1:1 match on firm name and zip code (66.3%); substring matches closest to the reported address (+13.9%); fuzzy matching on the 50 closest Stata matchit candidates, ranked by 5 scores (bigram similscore, token, tokensound, SAS compget and speedist), keeping the best average rank (+6.2%). Overall firm match rate is 86.4%. Industry comes from BFL using NACE Rev. 2 groupings of 10, 21 or 38 industries. Industry is missing when the firm is too new or small to have an industry recorded in BFL.
  Registers: CVR, BFL
  Codes: NACE Rev. 2 aggregations: 10, 21 and 38 industries
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.2, fn. 41, 42, 44
• Firm wage premium (AKM firm effect) Firm characteristics and productivity
  AKM model on log hourly wages (BFL monthly earnings divided by monthly paid hours) with worker, firm and calendar-month fixed effects. The panel uses March and September of each year from 2008 to 2017, giving 265,425 connected firms (about 95% of firms). Firm effects are standardised within industry by subtracting the industry mean and dividing by the industry SD. Decile bins are employment-weighted by firm employment in August 2015. Gender-specific AKM effects are used as a robustness check.
  Registers: BFL
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.3
• Hourly wage in new job Earnings and income
  BFL monthly earnings divided by recorded monthly paid hours in the first full month of employment in the new job. Results are similar using a 4-month average or excluding observations whose hours were imputed by Statistics Denmark.
  Registers: BFL
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.1, fn. 40
• Typical wage of a job Earnings and income
  Predicted log wage from a Post-LASSO OLS model estimated on new jobs in the analysis sample. Candidate regressors are 1-, 2- and 3-digit industry and occupation dummies, the within-industry standardised AKM firm effect (set to 0 when missing, plus a missing dummy) and all pairwise interactions, 10,407 variables in total. Rigorous LASSO (Belloni et al. 2016, LASSOPACK, clustered by individual) selects 233 variables, of which 117 remain after collinearity. Out-of-sample R2 is 0.201. Alternative models without firm information or without occupation information fill in values for unlinked applications. The model uses no worker characteristics.
  Registers: BFL, Joblog (Jobnet)
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.4, Tables A.3-A.4
• Full-time vs part-time applied-for job Hours worked
  Mandatory Joblog field: full-time is 37 hours per week; part-time is less than full-time.
  Registers: Joblog
  working paper · Section 4 (non-wage job characteristics)
• Implied commute Geography and neighbourhood
  Commuting distance or time from the applicant's municipality of residence to the job's postal code, computed with the Google Maps API (following Harmon 2015).
  Registers: Joblog, BEF/IDA residence
  working paper · Section 4, footnote 33
• Firm family-friendliness Family links, fertility and household
  Firm-level average days of parental leave per birth among employees. Built from childbirth-related payouts after 2011 in the sickness/maternity benefit register (SGDP), covering both employer reimbursements and direct payments, for workers who later return to the same pre-birth employer. Births are inferred from a new leave spell or a gap of more than half a year between payments. Leave length is censored at 14 months and demeaned by gender before averaging at the firm. Firms with no births form a separate 'no birth' category.
  Registers: SGDP (sickness/maternity benefit register)
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.8.1, fn. 55-57, Figure A.4
• Conditioning set (double-LASSO observables) Sample definition and timing
  The double-LASSO of Belloni et al. 2014 (PDSLASSO) selects 332 variables from 4,196 candidates, of which 302 remain after collinearity; they enter a logit propensity score for being male, and women are reweighted by p/(1-p). Candidates: years of education, field of study, age, total work experience and experience over the last 5 years, sector/industry/occupation of the previous job, industry- and occupation-specific experience over the last 5 years at 1/2/3-digit levels, and time on UI, social assistance and other transfers over the last 5 years, with interactions and squares of age, education and experience.
  Registers: IDA, DREAM
  online appendix · Online Appendix A.5-A.6, Table A.5

• Firm exposure to wholesale-funded banks Firm characteristics and productivity
  Share of wholesale-funded banks in the firm's 2007 loan portfolio. Descriptive bins: no exposure (<0.02), low (0.02-0.5), high (0.5-0.98), full (>0.98).
  Registers: Bank account-level loan reports, Bank balance sheets
  Codes: <0.02, 0.02-0.5, 0.5-0.98, >0.98
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure A.4 and Table A.2 notes
• Firm bank loans Wealth, debt and consumption
  Account balance as of December 31 summed over all of a firm's bank loan relationships reported by banks to the Danish Tax Authority, including regular and syndicated loans, credit card debt and variable-utilisation accounts (revolving loans, overdrafts). Mortgages are not included because they are provided by specialised mortgage institutions outside the banking system.
  Registers: URTEVIRK
  paper · Section I.A (Loan Data)
• Average interest rate on bank loans Firm characteristics and productivity
  Because contractual rates are often missing in the loan micro data, the average interest rate is computed as interest paid divided by the average of current and lagged end-of-year loan balances (Equation 1); regression of it on the contractual rate gives a coefficient of 0.91 for rates below 0.1.
  Registers: Bank account-level loan reports to the tax authority
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure A.3 notes
• Producer prices (PPI microdata) Firm characteristics and productivity
  Monthly transaction prices (DKK, incl. temporary sales and discounts) reported by firms in the PPI survey for products classified by eight-digit HS codes; baseline uses domestic prices only. Prices are quality-adjusted, monthly price changes winsorized at +/-1 log points, and the data converted to quarterly frequency by keeping the price in the first month of each quarter.
  Registers: Producer Price Index survey microdata (Statistics Denmark)
  Codes: 8-digit Harmonized System product codes
  paper · Section I.B (Price Data)
• Export unit values Trade and offshoring
  Annual firm-level unit values for 8-digit Combined Nomenclature (CN) goods = export revenue / export quantity. CN revisions handled by identifying one-to-one, many-to-one, one-to-many and many-to-many concordance sets between consecutive years; log changes computed over mapped sets (physical weight used if units differ); aggregated to firm-level 2-digit CN geometric mean indices weighted by year y-1 sales.
  Registers: Customs export data
  Codes: CN8 -> CN2
  online appendix · Online Appendix B, eq. B.1-B.2
• Firm sample Sample definition and timing
  Starting from the complete 2007 Danish firm register, cumulative restrictions: active manufacturing firms (7,281); more than 10 employees (3,322); at least one bank connection (3,295); survival 2005-2010 (2,703); bank loans >100,000 DKK in 2006 and 2007 and 2007 loan-to-sales ratio >0.01 (1,753 firms; 213 matched to PPI, 1,176 to export unit values). Positive outstanding loans in 2006 and 2007 are required to compute the 2007 average interest rate control.
  Registers: Firm register, Bank loan reports to the tax authority
  Codes: employees >10; loans >100,000 DKK; loan-to-sales >0.01
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.1 and Figure A.1 notes
• Product demand elasticity Trade and offshoring
  Broda and Weinstein (2006) CES demand elasticities. Baseline: 4-digit SITC Rev. 3 estimates matched to HS 6-digit codes (94% of PPI products; 98.9% after filling with 4-digit averages); for unit values, the volume-weighted mean elasticity within the firm's 2-digit CN cell (98.5% matched). Alternative: 10-digit HS estimates (86.4% of PPI, 96% of unit value sample matched).
  Registers: PPI microdata, Customs export data
  Codes: SITC Rev.3 4-digit; HS6; HS10
  online appendix · Online Appendix C.1
• Strategic complementarity Trade and offshoring
  Product-category-specific exchange-rate pass-through into domestic-currency export prices, estimated on 1995-2007 customs data at the firm x CN8 product x destination x year level, with firm-year, product-year and product-destination fixed effects and destination controls (real GDP, export, import growth, change in unemployment rate); 45 destination countries covering 89% of export value.
  Registers: Customs export data
  Codes: CN8
  online appendix · Online Appendix C.3, eq. C.2
• Gross operating margin Firm characteristics and productivity
  (sales - labour cost - purchases)/sales; alternative version additionally subtracts interest payments to banks from the loan data. Accounting profits are after interest, taxes and depreciation; total inventories include raw/intermediate inputs and pre-payments, final goods inventories only produced goods.
  Registers: Accounting statistics, Bank loan reports
  online appendix · Online Appendix table notes for firm outcomes by exposure
• Industry fixed effects Sector and industry
  Regressions include 4-digit NACE x year (or half-year) fixed effects; robustness with 2-digit NACE x year. Consumer packaged goods approximated by non-durable consumer goods industries classified by Eurostat Prodcom codes.
  Registers: Firm register
  Codes: NACE 4-digit, 2-digit
  online appendix · Online Appendix Tables A.4-A.5 notes; Appendix C.2

• Job loss event Unemployment and benefits
  Month in which wage payments from the individual's main employer cease and total gross wage income drops below DKr 1,000; the individual must receive unemployment benefits or social insurance in months -1 to 3 and no early retirement, sickness or parental leave benefits then, must have had gross wage income of at least DKr 10,000 for at least 18 consecutive months before, and must not return to the same employer within three months.
  Registers: Monthly payroll and income transfer records (Danish Tax Agency, via Statistics Denmark)
  paper · Section III
• Analysis sample and event window Sample definition and timing
  Baseline sample of active customers: at least five outgoing spending transactions in each month of the event window, with the partner (if any) meeting the same criterion. Exclusive-customer subsample: active customers (and partners) with no deposits or loans at other retail banks. Characteristics measured in month -6 relative to job loss (annual income over the calendar year containing month -6; shares held at other banks and mortgage debt at end of previous calendar year).
  Registers: Danske Bank; tax records; mortgage data
  Codes: >= 5 spending transactions per month
  online appendix · Table A1 notes
• Mass layoff subsample Sample definition and timing
  Mass layoff notifications from the Ministry of Employment (firms with >20 employees must report planned large-scale layoffs; 'large scale' ranges from 10 workers for firms with 20-100 employees to 30 workers for firms with >300 employees), linked by firm ID to Tax Agency payroll data; individuals whose employer's report date falls in months -7 to -1 relative to the observed layoff month; 1,156 individuals.
  Registers: Ministry of Employment mass layoff notifications; BFL/eIndkomst
  Codes: report in months -7 to -1
  online appendix · Appendix E
• Household disposable income (bank inflows) and components Earnings and income
  Disposable income = sum of monthly incoming direct deposits, person-to-person transfers from outside the household and cash deposits into Danske Bank accounts owned by the affected person and/or spouse (excluding transfers between own accounts). Wage income: inflow coded as wage if sender's bank registration number (4-digit Danish bank code) is the one mapped to the recipient's employer in that month (mapping = registration number from which the highest share of the employer's payroll employees, per Tax Agency payroll data, received payments; second-ranked used if top is the central-government number and employer is not central government), or if transaction type code is e.g. 'salary transfers'. Joint-account wage payments go to the spouse if from the spouse's employer, otherwise to the affected person. Government transfers: sender registration number linked to a paying agency per payroll data, or the central-government registration number when person does not work for central government. Private transfers and other income = residual.
  Registers: Danske Bank transactions; BFL/eIndkomst monthly payroll and transfer records
  online appendix · Appendix A (Income variables) and Appendix C
• Total spending (transaction based) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Sum of outgoing card payments (incl. mobile-phone payments), bill payments and cash withdrawals from the household's bank accounts, excluding outflows identified via recipient MCC as tax or debt payments; excludes bank fees, securities purchases and uncategorized transfers. Bank aggregates raw transactions to daily totals per account x transaction type x recipient category. Household = affected person + spouse; joint-account outflows split evenly between owners.
  Registers: Danske Bank transactions
  Codes: MCC-based exclusion of tax/debt payments
  online appendix · Appendix A (Spending) and Appendix B
• Spending subcategories (MCC-based) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Utilities: MCC 4900, 4812, 4814, 4821, 4899 or bill-payment label utilities/elec/gas/water/heating/internet/cable TV/telephone/TV license. Restaurants and bars: MCC 5813, 5462, 5811, 5812, 5814. Groceries: MCC 5411, 5422, 5441, 5499, 5921 or bill-payment label groceries.
  Registers: Danske Bank transactions
  Codes: Utilities MCC 4900,4812,4814,4821,4899; Restaurants MCC 5813,5462,5811,5812,5814; Groceries MCC 5411,5422,5441,5499,5921
  online appendix · Appendix A (Spending)
• Net saving in liquid assets Wealth, debt and consumption
  Change in end-of-month balances on Danske Bank deposit accounts owned by the affected person or spouse plus outflows minus inflows of transactions with type code 'securities trade'.
  Registers: Danske Bank account records
  online appendix · Appendix A
• Net repayments on non-mortgage loans Wealth, debt and consumption
  Change in end-of-month balances on loan accounts (amounts owed coded as negative balances) owned by the affected person or spouse.
  Registers: Danske Bank account records
  online appendix · Appendix A
• Mortgage equity extraction and loan types (monthly) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Monthly mortgage portfolio reconstructed from annual end-of-year loan-level snapshots: loans tracked by unique loan ID; loans appearing/disappearing dated by origination of new loans, and, if ambiguous, termination month inferred by comparing interest implied by rate and balance with mortgage interest reported in annual tax returns. Adjustable-rate and interest-only indicators from loan type; average monthly payment imputed from remaining balance, time to maturity, interest rate and amortization profile; mortgage repayments = sum of average monthly payments over loans held at end of month.
  Registers: Mortgage bank loan-level data (end-of-year); tax returns (interest)
  online appendix · Appendix A and Appendix D

• Household definition and head Family links, fertility and household
  Households have one or two adults; two cohabiting adults are one household if (i) married or in a registered partnership, (ii) have at least one common child in the Civil Registration System, or (iii) are of opposite sex, age difference of 15 years or less, not closely related and with no other adults present. Children under 25, never married and childless belong to the parents' family. The head is the highest earner over the 13-year sample period.
  Registers: Civil Registration System (CPR) family links
  working paper · Section 4.1, footnotes 26-27
• Imputed household expenditure Wealth, debt and consumption
  C = Y - P - dNW: after-tax income (all labor and capital income, excluding capital gains) minus contributions to privately administered pension schemes minus the change in non-pension, non-housing net worth between 31 December of t-1 and t. Households in housing-transaction years and with more than trivial business income are excluded; equity holders are assumed to hold a diversified stock index; household-years with negative imputed expenditure (about 3 percent) are discarded.
  Registers: Tax-authority income records, Tax-reported wealth data, Private pension contribution records
  working paper · Section 4.2
• Unexpected income change Earnings and income
  After dropping the top and bottom 1 percent of household after-tax-and-transfer income, income is normalized by average household income over the period and regressed on dummies for age, year, highest education, marital status, homeowner status and number of children plus age interactions with education, marital and homeowner status; the year-to-year change in the residual is the unexpected income change, trimming the top and bottom 1 percent. Expenditure residuals are constructed the same way.
  Registers: Tax-authority income records, Education register, Population register
  working paper · Sections 4.1 and 4.2
• Estimation sample Sample definition and timing
  Households whose head is aged 30-55 in 2008 (to exclude young/old whose income growth is likely anticipated and whose income variance is non-constant). Out-of-sample exposures allocated to seven bins: young (<30) heads, old (>55) heads, pension funds (incl. children's savings accounts), government, non-financial corporates, financials, rest of the world.
  Registers: CPR household links
  Codes: head age 30-55 in 2008
  online appendix · Online Appendix E and G
• Liquid wealth quintiles Wealth, debt and consumption
  Households are assigned to quantiles by their mean level of liquid wealth (or income, etc.) over the sample period (long-term quintiles); liquid wealth is the end-of-year balance, averaged in real terms over 2009-2015 in descriptive comparisons.
  Registers: Tax-reported wealth data
  online appendix · Online Appendix E.1 and Table F.1 notes
• Unhedged Interest Rate Exposure (URE) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Household URE = annual savings (after-tax income minus imputed expenditure) plus maturing assets minus maturing liabilities. Maturing assets: all bank deposits (assumed floating) plus 20% of securities (5-year maturity assumed). Maturing liabilities: all bank debt (assumed floating), mortgage debt contractually due to reset its interest rate in the coming 12 months (counted at half weight since the new rate applies half the year; voluntary refinancing excluded), and other liabilities with an assumed 5-year maturity. Non-household sectors' maturity calibrated to 3.65 years so economy-wide URE sums to zero.
  Registers: Tax-reported wealth data, Mortgage reset data (Danmarks Nationalbank)
  Codes: securities 20%; mortgage resets within 12 months
  online appendix · Online Appendix H.1-H.2
• Net Nominal Position (NNP) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Household NNP = financial assets minus liabilities, averaged over 2009-2015 and deflated by CPI. Assets: bank deposits plus market value of securities excluding shares. Liabilities: all debt to financial institutions (including credit card debt), publicly administered student debt, tax debt and other debt to government bodies, as reported to the tax authorities by financial institutions. Other sectors from national financial accounts: net assets in currency and deposits, securities other than shares, loans, and trade credits/other accounts receivable-payable.
  Registers: Tax-reported wealth data, Danmarks Nationalbank financial accounts
  online appendix · Online Appendix H.1-H.2
• Nondurable consumption proxy Wealth, debt and consumption
  Imputed expenditure adjusted using registry data on household car purchases to proxy nondurable consumption (details in online appendix G, not in this file).
  Registers: Car purchase registry data
  working paper · Section 7.2

• DNA registration (treatment) Crime
  Indicator that the charged offender appears in the person-specific section of the Central DNA Database, merged to the charge register via personal identification and record numbers.
  Registers: Central DNA Database (person-specific section), Charge register
  working paper · Section 5.1
• Post-reform charge instrument and donut window Sample definition and timing
  Sampling window +/-24 months around the 2005 reform, excluding June-September of the reform year; placebo samples shift the reform to e.g. 2002. Robustness caps on number of prior charges at max 5, 10 or 15.
  Registers: Central Crime Register
  Codes: +/-24 months; donut June-September 2005
  online appendix · Table A-2 and placebo table notes
• Charge-level analysis sample Sample definition and timing
  Charges for offenses against the Penal Code or Weapons Act (excluding traffic offenses, small-scale drug possession, Health Code and Tax Law violations) against Danish-resident males aged 18-30 at the charge with at most 10 previous charges; one charge per person per day; unit of observation is the charge.
  Registers: Charge register, Population register
  working paper · Section 5.1, footnotes 12 and 14
• Recidivism: subsequent convictions Crime
  Convictions for crimes committed after the sample charge, counted from the day after the charge, within one, two and three years; coded as a binary (at least one conviction) and as a count top-coded at 10 convictions per follow-up year. Measured for all crime and separately for violence, property, sexual, other penal (incl. serious drug offenses) and Weapons Act violations.
  Registers: Conviction register, Charge register
  working paper · Section 5.2, footnote 16
• Fast vs. slow charges (deterrence vs. detection) Crime
  Solved fast = time from crime date to charge < 3 weeks; solved slowly = >= 3 weeks. Clearance rates computed from all charges and all reported crimes in 2005, excluding heavily reported but rarely solved types such as bicycle theft (charged <10% of the time). Robustness uses a 2-week cutoff (share of crimes solved within 2 weeks: 0.572 overall, 0.520 property, 0.670 violent).
  Registers: Central Crime Register; National Police reported crime
  Codes: fast < 3 weeks; slow >= 3 weeks
  online appendix · Table A-13 notes; Table A-15 notes (2-week cutoff)
• Crime categories Crime
  Mapping of charge types to analysis categories. Sexual (Penal Code): incest, rape, pedophilia, voyeurism/flashing, other sexual violations. Violence: violence against public servant, disturbance of public peace, murder/manslaughter (incl. attempted), simple violence, major violence, threats, other violent assaults. Property: fraud, arson, theft, burglary, robbery, vandalism, other property crime. Other (penal): crimes against/as a public servant, drug smuggling or sales, obstruction of justice, restraining orders, other penal code crimes. Weapon: Weapons/Arms Act violations (explosives, firearms, knives). Not categorized: Traffic Act violations (accidents and speeding, traffic accidents with alcohol, drunk driving, other traffic), Drug Act possession/sales, other special acts (smuggling, construction, health, social fraud).
  Registers: Central Crime Register (charges)
  online appendix · Table A-1
• Labor market attachment Employment and labour force status
  Cumulated time in employment, education/training and unemployment over years 1-4 after the initial charge.
  Registers: IDA / labour market registers
  online appendix · Table A-3, panel B
• Family stability outcomes Family links, fertility and household
  Married; same partner; living with child and the child's mother, measured 1, 2 and 3 years after charge.
  Registers: Population register (BEF)
  online appendix · Table A-3, panel C
• Covariates Sample definition and timing
  Age, immigrant background, has children, single, years of education, gross income, employment status, number of prior charges, crime type dummies and month fixed effects; standard errors clustered by personal identification number.
  Registers: Population, education, income and crime registers
  online appendix · Table notes throughout

• Fatal health shock (spousal death) Sample definition and timing
  Households in which one spouse died between 1985 and 2011 and was aged 45 to 80 in the year of the (actual or placebo) event. Treatment households are matched to control households from the same cohorts that experienced the same event five years later (Delta = 5); summary statistics measured at t = -2. Prime-age subsamples restrict to households before the Early Retirement Age of 60.
  Registers: Cause of Death Registry; population/household registers
  Codes: Age at death 45-80; event years 1985-2011; Delta = 5 years
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.1 notes; Figure C.1 notes
• Non-fatal severe health shock Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Households in which one spouse experienced a heart attack or a stroke for the first time between 1985 and 2011 and survived for at least three years, with both spouses under age 60. Controls are households from the same cohorts experiencing the same event five years later.
  Registers: National Patient Registry (LPR)
  Codes: First-ever heart attack or stroke; survival >= 3 years; both spouses < 60; years 1985-2011 (no ICD list given in appendix)
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A.1 notes
• Control group: same shock five years later Sample definition and timing
  Each treatment group of households shocked in year tau is matched to households from the same cohorts that experience the same shock in year tau + 5 (Delta = 5), who are assigned a placebo shock at t = 0 with t = year - tau; effects are identified up to four years after the shock via difference-in-differences relative to a baseline period (t = -2 in summary statistics).
  working paper · Section 4.1
• Labor force participation Employment and labour force status
  Indicator for having any positive level of annual earnings.
  Registers: Income registers
  working paper · Section 5
• Full-time and part-time employment (ATP-based) Hours worked
  From IDA, constructed from employee ATP pension contributions (available for individuals under 60): full-time means working at least 30 hours per week all 12 months of the calendar year (full-time full-year); part-time means working at some point in the year but fewer than 30 hours per week or fewer than 12 months.
  Registers: IDA, ATP contributions
  working paper · Section 3.2
• Household income from all sources Earnings and income
  Household income including income from any source: earnings, capital income, annuity payouts and benefits from any social program.
  Registers: Income and transfer registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table D.1 notes
• Liquid wealth Wealth, debt and consumption
  Third-party reported liquid wealth balances measured annually on 31 December, 1984-2011, including bank-account balances and lump-sum transfers from insurance companies; used in robustness checks to account for life insurance payouts.
  Registers: Tax-reported wealth data
  working paper · Section 3.2
• Potential income loss from spousal death Earnings and income
  Household income from any source in t = 1 holding the surviving spouse's earnings and social benefits (labor income, Social DI and Social Security) at their t = -1 level, divided by household income in t = -1, then normalized for treated households by the corresponding control-group mean.
  Registers: Income and transfer registers
  working paper · Section 5.2, footnote 22
• Municipal survivors-benefit instrument Unemployment and benefits
  For each municipality and year, the average Social Disability Insurance (Social DI) benefits received by non-working surviving spouses is computed; each widow in the treatment group is assigned her municipality-year leave-one-out mean. Benefits in annual DKK 1,000. Sample: widows under 67 (age of transition into Old-Age Pension) in years before 1994, when there is a data break in the reporting of survivors benefits received through Social DI. Controls: municipality unemployment rate and average earnings (interacted with Treat, Post, Treat x Post), widow age, year and municipality FE; post periods 2-4.
  Registers: Transfer income registers; municipality of residence
  Codes: Widow age < 67; years < 1994; leave-one-out municipality-year mean
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table C.3 notes
• High-severity non-fatal shock Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Binary indicator equal to 1 if the sick spouse was hospitalized for 10 days or more following the heart attack/stroke and 0 if hospitalized for fewer than 10 days; 10 days is the 75th percentile of the distribution of hospitalization days associated with the shock in the treatment sample.
  Registers: National Patient Registry (LPR)
  Codes: Hospitalization days >= 10 (75th percentile)
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table D.1 notes
• Primary vs secondary earner status of deceased spouse Earnings and income
  Deceased spouse is classified as primary (secondary) earner if the share of his/her average pre-event labor income in the household's average pre-event labor income was higher (lower) than one half.
  Registers: Income registers
  Codes: Share of household labor income > 0.5 = primary earner
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure C.1 and Table C.2 notes
• Husband's pre-death work status Employment and labour force status
  Indicator for whether the deceased husband worked throughout the entire five-year period preceding his death (periods -5 to -1); sample restricted to husbands who either worked in all five years or did not work at all in that period.
  Registers: IDA / income registers
  Codes: Periods -5 to -1
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table C.4 notes

• Homeownership (household-based) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Baseline measure from housing records (living in an owner-occupied home) validated against the tax-record measure based on housing wealth available from 1987, for the population above age 20; housing-register measure is slightly lower in level because it misses owners not residing in their owned property. A variant uses only 'clean' cases (defined in main text).
  Registers: Housing register (BBR); tax records (housing wealth, from 1987)
  online appendix · Figure A.I notes
• Home size Wealth, debt and consumption
  Area of the house in square metres used for habitation, from the housing register.
  Registers: Housing register
  working paper · Section 3.2
• Home value Wealth, debt and consumption
  Appraisal of the property by the Danish Tax Authorities made for assessing imputed rental income and taxable wealth.
  Registers: Tax authority property appraisals
  working paper · Section 3.2
• Total deductible interest expenses Wealth, debt and consumption
  Interest paid on mortgage debt, consumer debt and other loans (all deductible), for homeowners; mortgage interest cannot be separated over the whole period.
  Registers: Income tax records
  working paper · Section 3.2
• Household tax bracket / treatment status Taxes and tax rates
  A taxpayer is assigned to the top bracket if she or her spouse is in the top bracket, to the middle bracket if either is in the middle and neither in the top, and to the bottom bracket if both are in the bottom. Treated are those in the top bracket in every year 1984-1986; controls are in the middle or bottom bracket in every year 1984-1986.
  Registers: Income tax records, Population register spouse links
  working paper · Section 4
• Net-of-tax interest rate Taxes and tax rates
  (1 - tau) R, where tau is the marginal tax rate on negative capital income; the 1987 reform set this rate to 51 percent in all brackets (pre-reform top about 73, middle 62, bottom 48 percent in the average municipality), raising the net-of-tax rate by 81 percent for the top group, 29 percent for the middle and reducing it 6 percent for the bottom.
  working paper · Section 3.1, Figure 1
• Semi-balanced panel 1980-1996 Sample definition and timing
  Individuals observed in every year 1980-1996 while aged 20-80 (entering at 20, leaving after 80), giving 7 pre-reform and 10 post-reform years; about 40 million person-years.
  Registers: Population register
  working paper · Sections 3.2 and 4
• Long-run balanced panel 1980-2011 Sample definition and timing
  Very-long-run home size analysis uses a balanced panel of individuals observed in all years 1980-2011 (vs. main semi-balanced panel 1980-1996). Pre-trend robustness: group-specific linear trends estimated on 1983-1986 and residualized out.
  Registers: Housing register; population register
  online appendix · Figures A.II-A.IV notes

• Preschool exposure at age 3 Sample definition and timing
  Indicator equal to one for birth cohorts that had at least one government-approved preschool in their municipality of birth at age 3, using the year of government approval from archival lists of all approved preschools (Skjernbaek, nine editions 1921-1960); municipality of birth is assumed to be the early-childhood municipality.
  Registers: Archival preschool lists (Skjernbaek), Parish of birth (population register), DigDag
  working paper · Sections 2 (Data on preschools) and 3, eq. (1)
• Nurse Home Visiting (NHV) exposure in birth year Sample definition and timing
  Indicator for an approved NHV program in the municipality in the birth year, based on DNBH approval dates 1937-1949 from the Danish National Archives (approval required sufficient nurse coverage). For 28 municipalities without an NHV program by 1949, treatment year is assigned from Skjernbaek lists (year of previous publication if listed, otherwise never treated).
  Registers: Danish National Board of Health (DNBH) archival records, Skjernbaek lists
  working paper · Section 2 (NHV data)
• Municipality of birth from parish of birth Geography and neighbourhood
  Births are registered at parish level; parish of birth is mapped to 1930-1960 municipalities using DigDag. Individuals with invalid or undocumented parish codes, post-1970 municipality coding, registration by religious minorities, or hospital births are dropped (about 90 percent of Danish-born have a valid parish of birth).
  Registers: Population register (parish of birth), DigDag
  working paper · Section 2, Sample construction and selection, footnote 15
• Years of schooling and more than compulsory schooling at age 50 Education and test scores
  Years of schooling at age 50 adding up schooling across educational programs, and an indicator for having more than nine years of compulsory schooling at age 50.
  Registers: Education register (Statistics Denmark)
  working paper · Section 4.1
• Log average wage income ages 30-60 Earnings and income
  Natural log of average wage income (in 2012 prices) over all ages between 30 and 60 observable in the 1980-2012 register data.
  Registers: Income register (Statistics Denmark)
  working paper · Section 4.1
• Human capital index Education and test scores
  Equally weighted average of years of schooling at 50, more-than-compulsory indicator and log average wage income 30-60, each standardized by the mean and SD of the control group (municipality-by-cohort cells without an approved preschool by age 3 in the 138 ever-implementing municipalities).
  Registers: Education register, Income register
  working paper · Section 4.1
• Survival beyond age 65 Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Indicator for surviving past age 65, with data left-censored so that all individuals enter the risk period at age 50 (outcome data start in 1980). Supplementary outcomes include hospital care utilization (e.g. nights in hospital ages 55-64) and diagnoses of cardiovascular disease, heart disease, diabetes and cancer; specific diagnosis codes are not given in the main text.
  Registers: Population/death registers, National Patient Register
  working paper · Section 4.1
• Second-generation education by age 25 Family links, fertility and household
  Main second-generation analysis uses firstborn children of mothers born 1935-1957; robustness uses all children of these mothers; cells by mother's municipality x birth year.
  Registers: Population register parent links; education register
  online appendix · Table A6 notes
• Alternative adult income measures Earnings and income
  Robustness income outcomes (municipality x birth-year cells): average age 30-60 wage income in levels; log present discounted value of age 30-60 wage income (following Chetty et al. 2011); log average age 30-60 total income; log average age 49-51 wage income; indicator for any positive wage income at ages 49-51.
  Registers: Income registers
  online appendix · Table A2 and notes
• Hospital nights ages 45-54 and 55-64 Health care use
  Number of nights spent in hospital over age ranges 45-54 and 55-64 (first generation), analysed at municipality x birth-year cell level.
  Registers: National Patient Register
  online appendix · Table A4
• Adult diagnoses (cardiovascular, heart, diabetes, cancer) Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Indicators for diagnoses of cardiovascular disease, heart disease, diabetes and cancer (first generation); code lists not given in this appendix (follows Hjort, Solvsten and Wust 2017).
  Registers: National Patient Register
  online appendix · Table A4
• Female fertility outcomes Family links, fertility and household
  For females born 1935-1957 in the 138 municipalities with an approved preschool by 1960: no children, number of children, age at first birth, and father ever missing in child's birth record ('Dad Ever Miss.').
  Registers: Population register / Fertility database (parent-child links)
  online appendix · Table A5
• Preschool enrollment rate (first stage) Education and test scores
  Share of children aged 3-7 enrolled in preschool: enrollment counts per preschool from the nine years of preschool book publications, interpolated to every year and aggregated to municipality x year, divided by number of survivors past age four; urban municipalities, 1940-1950 (1940 first year all living 7-year-olds observed, since birth data start 1933). (Table A11 title says aged 3-6; its notes say 3-7.)
  Registers: Archival preschool records; municipal births and infant deaths
  online appendix · Table A11 notes
• Estimation sample Sample definition and timing
  138 municipalities that ever had an approved preschool by 1960; individuals born 1935-1957; robustness drops cohorts born 1950-1957 in 28 municipalities lacking precise NHV initiation information, and drops NHV-treated observations in the bottom 1st percentile of the human capital index.
  Registers: Population register; archival records
  online appendix · Figures A1-A2 notes; Tables A13-A14

• Household marginal interest rate (2008) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Interest on marginal liquidity, computed from register data on all loan and deposit accounts of the household obtained from the Danish Tax Agency (SKAT), measured in 2008, in percent.
  Registers: Danish Tax Agency account-level loan and deposit data
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table EA.1 notes
• Propensity to spend the SP payout (survey) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Survey (Epinion) question: considering the increase in disposable funds from the SP payout, how did you allocate it: 1) increase spending, 2) increase free savings, 3) reduce debt, 4) increase pension savings; spending share in [0,1] (96% of answers 0 or 1). Main sample includes only respondents who withdrew the SP balance (N = 5,037); extended sample adds 215 non-withdrawers coded as zero spending. Probit robustness codes share >= 0.5 as 1.
  Registers: Telephone survey linked to registers on CPR
  Codes: Probit: 0 if share in [0,0.5], 1 if in [0.5,1]
  online appendix · Online Appendix sections 4, 7, 8 (survey instruments)
• SP payout / SP account balance Retirement and pensions
  SP payout is the (potential) payout, i.e. the Special Pension account balance less taxes; enters as SP payout / 2008 disposable income (percent).
  Registers: ATP Special Pension (SP) account register
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table EA.1 notes
• Register net savings Wealth, debt and consumption
  Change in net bank assets (bank deposits minus bank debt, including credit card debt, recorded on the last day of the year) between t and t-1 from the income-tax/wealth register; used to validate survey answers for 2005-2011.
  Registers: Income tax register (SKAT wealth data)
  working paper · Section 5.1
• Imputed spending Wealth, debt and consumption
  Disposable income minus net savings (change in net bank assets) minus private pension contributions, c = y - dW - p, following Browning and Leth-Petersen (2003).
  Registers: Income tax register
  working paper · Section 5.1
• Low liquid assets dummy Wealth, debt and consumption
  Indicator equal to one if the individual holds liquid assets worth less than one month's disposable income (threshold chosen for highest predictive power); a continuous liquid-assets-to-disposable-income ratio is also used.
  Registers: Income tax register
  working paper · Section 5.3.2
• High debt service dummy Wealth, debt and consumption
  Indicator equal to one if debt service is 15 percent or more of disposable income; also used as a continuous debt-service-to-disposable-income ratio.
  Registers: Income tax register, SKAT account-level loan records
  working paper · Section 5.3.2
• Holding a deposit balance Wealth, debt and consumption
  Individuals with total deposit-account balances exceeding one month's disposable income are labelled as having a balance (to net out salary accounts credited just before 31 December); used to define the group holding both assets and debt.
  Registers: SKAT account-level deposit records
  working paper · Section 5.3.1
• Liquid assets / disposable income Wealth, debt and consumption
  Liquid assets (deposits, shares and bonds) in 2008 as percent of 2008 disposable income; underlies the low-liquid-assets indicator.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark income and wealth registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table EA.1 notes
• Debt service / disposable income Wealth, debt and consumption
  Debt service, defined as total interest payments on loans, in 2008 as percent of 2008 disposable income; underlies the high-debt-service indicator.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark income registers
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table EA.1 notes
• Permanent income Earnings and income
  Average of (register) income over 1998-2008, entered in logs; income controls also include ln(2008 register income) and the standard deviation of ln(income).
  Registers: Statistics Denmark income registers
  Codes: Years 1998-2008
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table EA.1 notes
• Education level dummies Education and test scores
  Short, medium and long education correspond to vocational training, college BA level, and college Master and PhD level, respectively; reference group is high school or less.
  Registers: Statistics Denmark education register
  Codes: Short = vocational; medium = BA; long = Master/PhD; ref = high school or less
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table EA.1 notes
• Income and credit expectations (survey) Other
  Survey questions on whether total 2009 income evolved better/worse than expected (5-point scale plus don't know), changes in expected 2010 income, and changes in expectations about the possibility of borrowing money in 2010 (5-point scale from much more optimistic to much more pessimistic).
  Registers: Telephone survey
  Codes: 5-point Likert scales
  online appendix · Online Appendix section 8 (survey instruments)

• ATP hours worked Hours worked
  For the OECD-comparable gender gap series, full-time workers aged 16-64 are identified using the ATP hours measure; earnings and participation gaps use the whole population aged 16-64, hours and wage gaps are conditional on participation.
  Registers: ATP pension contributions
  Codes: ages 16-64
  online appendix · Figure A.I notes
• Wage rate Earnings and income
  Earnings divided by the ATP hours measure, for those who are working (conditional on participation).
  Registers: ATP pension contributions, Income registers
  working paper · Section 2; Section 3.2 footnote 9
• Child penalty Family links, fertility and household
  Event study around year of first birth (t=0), event time -5 to +10 with t=-1 omitted, separately by gender with age and year dummies, estimated in levels; penalty P_t = (alpha_men_t - alpha_women_t) / E[counterfactual women's outcome | t], the percentage by which women fall behind men due to children.
  Registers: Population register (family links)
  working paper · Section 3.1, eqs. (1)-(2)
• Event-study sample Sample definition and timing
  Treatment = balanced panel of individuals with first child 1985-2003 observed in a 15-year window around the first birth; control = balanced panel of never-parents with a placebo birth in 1985-2003 observed in the same window.
  Registers: Population register
  online appendix · Appendix B.2
• Never-parent control group with placebo births Family links, fertility and household
  Separately by sex, a probit for zero lifetime fertility is estimated on non-truncated cohorts 1955-1973 with dummies for own-cohort income quartile, own-cohort wealth quartile, spouse-cohort wealth quartile, education length/degree (8 categories), decade of birth of maternal grandmother and of maternal grandfather, and region. For each cohort born after 1973, among those childless by 2013 the individuals with the highest predicted probability are designated never-parents so that their share equals the 1955-1973 average zero-fertility share. Placebo age at first child is drawn from a log-normal distribution fitted within birth cohort x education cells (for post-1973 cohorts the mean is extrapolated by a linear trend, variance held fixed).
  Registers: Population register (fertility links), Income and wealth registers, Education register
  online appendix · Appendix B.2
• Occupational rank and top manager Occupation and job hierarchy
  Occupation ranked in five levels: unskilled labour, skilled labour, white-collar work (low level), white-collar work (high level) and top manager, an ordering consistent with average earnings or wage rates by occupation; separate indicator for being top manager.
  Registers: Occupation (matched employer-employee data)
  working paper · Section 3.3, Figure 5 Panels A-B
• Firm family friendliness Firm characteristics and productivity
  Share of women with children below age 15 in the firm's workforce (excluding the woman's own first child when it arrives); outcome is the percentile rank in the distribution of firm family friendliness.
  Registers: Matched employer-employee data
  working paper · Section 3.3, Figure 5 Panel D
• Public-sector employment Sector and industry
  Indicator for working in the Danish public sector (no register code given).
  Registers: Matched employer-employee data
  working paper · Section 3.3, Figure 5 Panel C
• Grandparental relative labour supply rank Family links, fertility and household
  Relative labour supply of (maternal or paternal) grandparents based on cumulated hours worked 1964-79 from ATP pension contributions, in quintiles. Robustness controls: grandparents' within-generation wealth-rank quintiles, region of residence, length and field of education of grandmother and grandfather (22 dummies), and parents' total number of children measured in 2014.
  Registers: ATP pension contributions, Wealth register, Education register, Population register
  online appendix · Figure A.IX-A.X notes; Table A.II notes
• Third-child IV sample Sample definition and timing
  Women with first child 1985-2003 and completed fertility of two or three when last observed in 2013; unbalanced panel with the longest available window (up to t=28 after first birth); event-time dummies around the third birth instrumented with the sex mix of the first two children.
  Registers: Population register
  online appendix · Appendix B.3

• Treatment: born after municipal program implementation Sample definition and timing
  Indicator for being born in a municipality after it implemented the home visiting program (exact implementation dates 1937-1949 from the Danish National Archives), assigned from date and parish of birth; parishes mapped to municipalities using the 1930, 1940 and 1950 DigDag parish/municipality structures. Implementation assumed permanent once adopted.
  Registers: Administrative population data (date and parish of birth), Danish National Archives, DigDag
  paper · Section III.A, footnote 34; Section II footnote 17
• Estimation sample Sample definition and timing
  Cohorts 1935-1949 observed in registers from 1980, so left-censored at different ages; main analyses impose common left-censoring at age 45 (only individuals surviving to 45). Municipality of birth from parish of birth; 87.55% of 1,119,097 cohort members have a valid parish code (excluded: born abroad 6.42%, Greenland, unknown, invalid, post-1970 codes 4.88%, county codes, other religious groups, Catholic registration, missing).
  Registers: Population register (CPR) parish of birth; Inpatient and Death Registers
  Codes: valid parish code
  online appendix · Appendix A.2 and Table B.2
• Age-specific survival Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Indicators for survival beyond each age 46-64, from the Danish Death Register 1980-2012.
  Registers: Danish Death Register
  paper · Section III.B
• Hospital nights ages 45-64 Health care use
  Total number of nights spent in hospital between ages 45 and 64 from the Danish Inpatient Register 1980-2012; robustness winsorizes at the 99th percentile (about 190 nights).
  Registers: Danish Inpatient Register (LPR)
  paper · Section III.B, footnote 39
• Disease diagnoses (heart, cardiovascular, diabetes, cancer) Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Diagnoses from the Danish Inpatient Register 1980-2012 (ICD-8 until 1993, ICD-10 from 1994); individuals must be hospitalized (1980-1993) or have at least one outpatient visit (1994-2012) to appear. ICD-8: diabetes 249, 250; cardiovascular disease 390-458; heart disease 410-414. ICD-10: diabetes DE10-DE14; cardiovascular disease DI00-DI99; heart disease DI20-DI25.
  Registers: Danish Inpatient Register (Landspatientregisteret)
  Codes: ICD-8 249-250, 390-458, 410-414; ICD-10 DE10-DE14, DI00-DI99, DI20-DI25
  online appendix · Appendix A.1
• Cause-specific death Health outcomes, diagnoses and mortality
  Causes of death from the Death Register grouped into the 23 Danish National Board of Health groups, with groups 12-13 and 20-23 merged; both first and second cause used. Groups (ICD-10; ICD-8): 1 infection A00-B99, 000-136; 2 cancer C00-C97, 140-209; 3 other cancer D00-D48, 210-239; 4 blood D50-D89, 280-289; 5 endocrine/metabolic E00-E90, 240-246, 250-279; 6 mental F03-F99, 290-315; 7 nervous system G00-G31, 320-389; 8 heart disease G35-H95, I00-I25, I27, I30-I51, 390-398, 400-404, 410-414, 420-429; 9 other cardiovascular I26, I28, I60-I99, 430-438, 440-448, 450-458; 10 respiratory J00-J99, 460-474, 480-486, 490-493, 500-519; 11 digestive K00-K92, 520-577; 12-13 skin/musculoskeletal L00-L99, M00-M99, 680-738; 14 genitourinary N00-N98, 580-629; 15 pregnancy O00-O99, 630-678; 16 perinatal P00-P96, 760-779; 17 congenital Q00-Q99, 746-759; 18 symptoms R00-R98, R99, 780-793, 795-796; 19 accidents V01-X59, Y40-Y86, Y88, E80-E94; 20 suicide/murder/legal interventions X60-X99, Y00-Y36, Y89, R99, E95-E99 (as printed).
  Registers: Danish Register of Causes of Death
  Codes: see definition
  online appendix · Appendix A.1, Causes of death
• Pre-1937 municipality characteristics Geography and neighbourhood
  From the Statistical Commune Data Archive: party vote shares in three elections, population and urbanization in 1935, percent female 1930, percent workers in agriculture/industry 1930, percent on public aid 1936, percent income/property taxpayers 1936, aggregate taxable income and assessed property value 1936; plus 1936 infant mortality and enteritis deaths per 1,000 births by medical district (Medical Reports) and distance to Copenhagen; used as controls interacted with cohort and for propensity-score matching (caliper 0.05, one control without replacement).
  Registers: Danish Commune Archive, Medical Reports for the Kingdom of Denmark, DigDag
  paper · Section III.A; Section II matching, footnote 26

• Monthly wage change relative to 2008 Earnings and income
  Percentage change in individual monthly gross wage income (year t, month m) relative to the individual's average monthly gross earnings in 2008; percentage changes are used instead of logs because monthly earnings may be zero or near zero.
  Registers: eIncome register (SKAT)
  working paper · Section II, eq. (1)
• Treatment and control groups (top-tax incentive) Sample definition and timing
  Robustness variants of the control group by average monthly 2008 earnings: narrow C-group DKK 32,000-35,000, wide C-group DKK 24,000-35,000; doughnut sample excludes individuals with average monthly 2008 earnings DKK 33,000-37,000; alternative baseline year 2009 (groups and income differences relative to 2009); alternative post-reform year 2011. T-group by percentile bins of average monthly earnings: [P80,P90), [P90,P95), [P95,P99), [P99,+].
  Registers: eIncome monthly payroll register (SKAT)
  Codes: Narrow C: 32,000-35,000 DKK/month; wide C: 24,000-35,000 DKK/month; doughnut excl. 33,000-37,000 DKK/month (2008)
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A2 notes; Figure A1
• Analysis sample Sample definition and timing
  Individuals employed throughout 2008 (a wage record in every month of 2008) with positive income in all years, observed January 2008 - December 2011; includes people who are both wage earners and self-employed. Sensitivity: excluding employees with any exit to unemployment during 2009-2010.
  Registers: eIncome register (SKAT)
  working paper · Section II, footnote 5; footnote 6
• Income-shifting indicator Earnings and income
  Equals one if income in a month is high (more than 50 percent above) relative to its level in the same month of 2008 and income in the preceding month is low (more than 50 percent below) relative to its 2008 level; zero otherwise. Robustness with 25%-25% and 75%-75% cutoffs; a stricter version also requires November 2009 income to be unusually low.
  Registers: eIncome register (SKAT)
  working paper · Section III.A, eq. (3) and footnote 6
• Financial capacity (liquidity) Wealth, debt and consumption
  Financial assets (money in bank accounts and value of shares and bonds) at end of 2008 relative to 2008 annual disposable income; groups below one month, between one and two months, and above two months of disposable income.
  Registers: Background registers at Statistics Denmark
  working paper · Section III.B, Figure 8
• Firm size groups and top-five paid Firm characteristics and productivity
  Firm size groups: fewer than 25, 25-99, 100-499 and 500+ employees; large firms defined as more than 100 employees (top decile by number of employees); top-five paid employees within each firm used to isolate top management.
  Registers: eIncome register (SKAT), Firm registers
  working paper · Section III.B, Figures 6-7
• Awareness of shifting opportunity Other
  Survey respondents are classified as informed about the opportunity to shift income if they answered Q1 = 'After New Year' and Q2 = 'Legal' in the Capacent Epinion telephone survey (588 T-group and 290 C-group respondents).
  Registers: eIncome monthly payroll register (SKAT) linked to telephone survey
  Codes: Q1 = 'After New Year' & Q2 = 'Legal'
  online appendix · Online Appendix Figure A2 notes
• Covariate set for ETI regressions Sample definition and timing
  Controls: age dummies, gender dummy, marriage dummy, 5 regional dummies, 10 sector dummies (as in paper Table 2) and 4 company-size dummies (as in paper Figure 7).
  Registers: Statistics Denmark administrative registers
  Codes: 5 regions; 10 sectors; 4 firm-size groups
  online appendix · Online Appendix Table A1 notes